Summa de Ecclesia

Since no small scruple arises in the minds of many, whether, when doctors hold contrary views, a man can safely follow whatever opinion of theirs he pleases, it has seemed to us that something should deservedly be said upon this. But since, as Augustine says in book 2 on the Predestination of the Saints, it matters how much and in what matters one errs, and how easily one corrects himself, or with how great obstinacy he strives to defend his error, therefore for a full answer to the proposed question there is need of manifold consideration.

¹ The first consideration indeed is concerning the matter about which there is variety of opinions among the doctors. The second concerning the conditions of the doctors opining. The third concerning the efficacy of the reasons and foundations by which the doctors themselves build their diverse opinions. The fourth is concerning the qualities of the hearers themselves. The fifth concerning the manner of the hearers adhering to the diverse opinions of the doctors themselves.

² First therefore is to be considered the matter about which there is variety of opinions among the doctors, which is either matter pertaining to faith and to good morals or not, but is concerning other faculties, for instance concerning geometrical or logical matters and the like, about which nothing of theirs concerns the faith whether they stand thus or otherwise. If the matter pertains to faith and to good morals, then a distinction is to be made: either those things which pertain to faith and to good morals are expressly had in sacred Scripture, or also by the authority of the universal Church are manifestly expounded to the faithful to be believed, or they are such of which no express testimony from sacred Scripture is had, nor does the doctrine of the universal Church teach anything expressly concerning them. With this consideration had, let this be the first conclusion: ³ in matters not pertaining to faith nor to good morals, without danger, as much as lies on the side of the matter, hearers can follow either opinion of the masters. This conclusion is clear, since in such things, as Saint Thomas says, whose is the aforesaid conclusion, in Quodlibet 3, art. 10, what the Apostle says has place: Let every man abound in his own sense. We say notably, as much as lies on the side of the matter of the opinions, since on the side of intention one can well sin therein, as for instance from disordered affection, as if from envy, hatred, love, bribery, or if from disordered affection he followed one opinion rather than another. But if the matter about which there is variety among the doctors pertains to faith indirectly and secondarily — things expounded in the articles of the faith — and concerning such things, let this be the second conclusion.

⁴ In those things which thus principally pertain to the catholic faith, no one capable of reason is excused from sin if he follows the erroneous opinion of some master. This conclusion is of blessed Thomas in the Quodlibet named above. For in such things, he says, ignorance does not excuse; otherwise they who followed the opinions of Arius and Nestorius and other heresiarchs would be excused. Nor can they have excuse on account of simplicity if in such things they follow an erroneous opinion. For in doubtful matters assent is not easily to be given, but rather, as Augustine says in 3. on Christian Doctrine, one ought to consult the rule of faith which he has perceived from the plainer places of the Scriptures and from the authority of the Church. Saint Thomas therefore concludes in the same place: He therefore who assents to the opinion of some master against the manifest testimony of Scripture or against what is publicly held according to the authority of the Church cannot be excused from the fault of error.

⁵ But if the matter about which there is variety among the masters be of things pertaining to faith indirectly and secondarily, which are not proposed to all to be believed explicitly, let this be the third conclusion: without danger of sin one can hold the contrary of what is expressly had in the canon of sacred Scripture, as that Abraham did not have two sons, or that David was not the son of Jesse, and the like. The conclusion is clear, since when one is not bound to believe such things explicitly, but only implicitly, namely so as to be prepared to believe whatever is contained in divine Scripture, then only is he bound to believe explicitly when it has been established to him in the doctrine of faith that this is contained therein. In the meantime, however, when it is not established, one can without danger hold and follow the contrary opinion, yet without obstinacy.

⁶ of the first consideration] But if those things which pertain to faith be such of which neither is express testimony of sacred Scripture had nor does the express doctrine of the universal Church teach anything concerning them, although they are included in those things of which explicit faith is necessary for all the faithful, let this be the fourth conclusion: in such things without danger of sin one can follow the opinion of some master contrary to the truth of faith, provided that once a determination has been made he embrace the doctrine of the Church. This conclusion is of Saint Thomas in 2. 2. q. 11. art. 2. And the reason of Saint Thomas is that such for that time have no choice contradicting the doctrine of the Church. But if after they were determined by the authority of the universal Church, one repugned such a determination of the Church, he would be reckoned a heretic.

⁷ The second principal consideration is concerning the conditions of the doctors diversely opining, namely of what sort they are: whether renowned, whether expert in their faculty, whether grave in morals, whether humble in judgment, so that they delight more in following the doctrines of the holy fathers than their own inventions and fantasies; according to this consideration there can be this fifth conclusion. ⁸ He does not seem to be altogether immune from sin who in matters touching faith does not strive to follow the opinions of the masters more learned and celebrated and expert in their faculty and who are weightier in morals: since otherwise the word of the Gospel seems to have place. If the blind lead the blind, both fall into the pit. For all in such matter, where masters opine diversely, should regularly conform their mind to the doctors who are more wont to adhere to the doctrines of the holy fathers. Whence Eccles. 8. is said: Despise not the narration of the priests, that is, the doctrine of the elder doctors, and converse in their proverbs, that is, live according to their doctrine. For from them thou shalt learn wisdom, namely of divine things, such as are the things to be believed, and the doctrine of understanding, which is of good morals in which the life of the faithful is to be adorned. Further, the discrete quantity of the masters is to be considered, namely how many doctors there are for one opinion, how many for another, since, other things being equal, that is more probably truer to which more learned masters concur than that which one or few follow, just as is said of the sentence which is strengthened by the judgment of more, dist. 69. Si transitus, and Extra on election, ch. Licet. Whence Eccles. 6. is said: Stand in the multitude of wise priests, and join thyself from the heart to their wisdom. ⁹ According to this consideration comes this sixth conclusion. He does not seem immune from sin who in things touching faith and good morals, abandoning the opinion¹⁰ of more masters, follows the opinion of one, or of few, other things being equal. The conclusion is clear from what has been said, and is gathered from the sayings of blessed Augustine in his book on Christian Doctrine, as is found in ch. In canonicis, dist. 19, where he says: But in those Scriptures, namely, which are not received by all, let him prefer those which the more and weightier receive to those which the fewer and of lesser authority hold in the Church. ¹¹ The third consideration is to be had concerning the motives and foundations by which the doctors strive to found and support their opinions, which consideration is deservedly to be had. Both because in doubtful matters assent is not easily to be given, whence Eccles. 19. is said: He that is hasty to give credit is light of heart. And because those things supported by weightier reason or more efficacious motive, since they are of greater authority, come to be preferred to others. Whence, on the opinion whether a ravisher can contract with her who was ravished, blessed Jerome is preferred to the opinion of the council of Aquileia saying that he cannot, as is clear in ch. Placuit, 36. q. 2. And this because, as the Gloss says, blessed Jerome strengthens the contrary opinion by the authority of the Old Testament and by the authority of the council of Meaux, and thus the sentence of blessed Jerome stands. Hence Monaldus in the prologue of his Summa says that no prejudice is sometimes generated against the sentence of truth when, among diverse opinions annotated by masters and approved doctors in authentic writings, one embraces that opinion which seems to him more consonant with reason. Likewise Host. in Extra on the compulsion of betrothed, upon ch. Sed vir, says that where there are diverse opinions and diverse laws, the more humane is always to be preferred, that is, the more reasonable and equitable, Extra on translation, ch. Si. But where each is humane, one must stand by that which rests on the better reason, Extra on feasts, ch. Capellanus. ¹² According to this consideration such a seventh conclusion can be set down. That he is to be blamed who without such diligent investigation and weighing of the reasons¹³ and motives by which the doctors found their diverse opinions, embraces with a certain levity of mind an opinion contrary to the truth of faith. The conclusion is clear: for he acts against that saying of Job 29. The cause which I knew not I searched out most diligently. And Ambrose in his book on Paradise says: No one ought to trust himself to another unless he has proved his virtue. ¹⁴ The fourth consideration is to be had concerning the qualities of the hearers. Concerning whom it is to be considered that not all are equally bound to have explicit faith, nor are all of the same capacity for discerning the conditions and differences of diverse masters opining diversely, or teaching, and for weighing the strength and virtue and efficacy of the motives or reasons by which the aforesaid masters found their opinions, but there are many of them very simple who with good simplicity adhere to the doctrine of their elders, believing that in all things they believe well in which they are instructed by them. Of whom Job 1. is said: The oxen were ploughing and the asses were feeding beside them, since namely the lesser, who are signified by the asses, ought in things to be believed to adhere to the greater, who are signified by the oxen, as Gregory expounds in 1. Morals. According to this consideration is set down this eighth conclusion. ¹⁵ That a simple man following the opinion of some master contrary to the faith will not be blamed where another understanding man, or of higher state and condition, would be. The conclusion is clear from what has been said. But lest from what has been said, that the lesser have implicit faith in the faith of the greater, any danger or prejudice to the faith of the lesser seem to be generated, since it may be that the greater themselves or masters err, it is to be noted according to Saint Thomas in 2. 2. q. 2. ar. 6. that the lesser have implicit faith in the faith of the greater only insofar as the greater adhere to divine doctrine. Whence the Apostle also says in 1. Cor. 4: Be ye followers of me as I also am of Christ, since human knowledge is not the rule of faith, but divine truth, from which if any of the greater falls away, it does not prejudice the faith of the simple who believe them to have right faith, unless they obstinately adhere to their errors in particular against the faith of the universal Church, which cannot fail, the Lord saying in Luke 22:¹⁶ I have prayed for thee, Peter, that thy faith fail not. ¹⁷ The fifth consideration to be had is this, concerning the manner of the hearers adhering to the opinions of masters opining against the truth of faith in those things which are neither expressly had in sacred Scripture, or if they are had do not pertain directly and principally to the faith, nor are found expounded to the faithful to be believed by the authority of the universal Church. For there is one manner of adhering with obstinacy. Another manner of adhering is without obstinacy, namely with preparation of mind to hold the contrary if the contrary, whether true, be shown to him, either by reason or by the authority of sacred Scripture, or by the authority of the universal Church. Of the variety of these manners many things have been said above. Thus therefore according to this consideration is set down the ninth conclusion. ¹⁸ They who obstinately adhere to the opinion of some master contrary to catholic truth err and erring sin and are to be reckoned heretics. This conclusion is of blessed Augustine against the Manichees, as is found in 24. q. 3. ch. Qui in ecclesia, where he says thus: They who in the Church of Christ savor of something morbid and perverse, if when corrected that they may savor what is sound and right, they resist contumaciously and refuse to amend their pestiferous and deadly doctrines, but are found defending them, are heretics. The tenth conclusion. ¹⁹ To adhere without any obstinacy to the opinion of some master contrary to the truth of faith in these matters of faith of which we made mention in the beginning of this consideration can be no sin. This conclusion is gathered from the sentence of blessed Augustine, who as is found in ch. Apostolus 24. q. 3. says thus: If any defend their own opinion, although false and perverse, with no obstinate animosity, especially one which they have not produced by the audacity of their own presumption, but have received from parents seduced and lapsed into error, and seek the truth with cautious solicitude, prepared to be corrected when they find it, they are by no means to be counted among heretics. This is Augustine. And these things concerning the present question have been said with the better judgment always reserved, especially since suffering the pains of gout we have completed it in such fashion as we could.