Summa Theologiae Moralis, vol. I: De Principiis

761. Co-operation in infidelity or heresy is the assistance given to them. It is of two kinds : one immediate, which is participation in their very constitution, propagation, and worship : this is intrinsically evil and always illicit ; the other mediate, which is the supply of matter, facility, or means for their preservation, propagation, or worship. This of itself is illicit, because it gives to another the means or occasion of sinning, which we are bound rather to turn him away from, and in this it is evil ; accidentally it can be lawful, if the action of the co-operator is not intrinsically evil, and there is a proportionately grave cause, namely, a good which compensates the evil, that is, the occasion of sinning given. Hence the cause is required to be all the more grave the graver the evil to which the co-operation is given, and the closer and more influential the co-operation is in it (n. 489-490).

762. With regard to the sacraments : 1) It is never lawful for parents to positively co-operate or permit (e.g. by asking, or willing, or consenting) that their children be baptized by a heretical (schismatic, sworn) minister, because to ask or to will baptism from heretics is an implicit acknowledgment of the sect, which is intrinsically evil (S. O., 26 Sept. 1668 ; 29 Nov. 1672 ; can. 2319) ; but to permit this negatively and to remain passive will not be lawful except for a very grave inconvenience, because the co-operation is for a very grave evil.

2) Similarly, for Catholics, even those serving in a hospital, it is illicit, at the request of a heretical sick person, directly to call upon the ministers of his sect to receive the helps of religion (likewise for a minister to perform funeral rites) : so S. O., 14 May 1848 and 26 Dec. 1898 ; for this, however, they can make use of a person belonging to that same sect (31 Jan. 1872).

In case such a person is lacking, according to some it is lawful to call the minister by saying : such a one wishes to speak with you, or something similar, but only for the common good, in a non-ordinary case, namely to avoid great public hatred against the Catholic religion, or the cessation of many goods to be performed by those serving in the hospital ; otherwise not, because it concerns the greatest evil of a private person, namely the eternal harm of the dying person¹.

763. With regard to offices of worship and sermons of heretics :

1) It is never lawful to co-operate by singing or musical instruments in the offices of heretics, as was said in the preceding article (n. 758, 3°), because the co-operation is immediate, i.e. participation in the very exercise of worship.

2) Nor is it lawful to invite others to the offices or sermons of heretics, whether by persuasion, or by authority or counsel, or by any other invitations, because it is directly inducing to sin, which is intrinsically evil.

3) Indeed to ring the bell as a sign that the heretical office or sermon is beginning (on the contrary in honor of the king), because ordinarily it is taken for an invitation, or altogether closely coheres with an invitation ; unless perhaps one should show that he acts thus for a very grave reason, e.g. in grave or almost extreme necessity.

764. With regard to the construction of temples and altars :

1) It is never lawful to adorn idols and their altars or temples, because it is intrinsically evil.

2) To build their temples or altars is illicit in general, because it is wont to be held as a sign of profession of false faith and to excite scandal (S. O., 7 Dec. 1626 ; 5 Sept. 1736 ; 8 Jan. 1851) ; otherwise it will not be lawful except for a most grave cause, because it is about an altogether evil thing (2 July 1827).

3) To build Mohammedan temples, with scandal excluded, is lawful for fear of a grave evil (P. F., 21 Nov. 1837).

4) To build temples of heretics, Jews, schismatics

a) it is lawful for masons and subordinate workmen for a lighter reason, provided it is not taken as a profession or approval of heresy, scandal is absent, and it is not demanded in contempt of religion, because the co-operation is remote and secondary (S. O., 13 Jan. 1818 ; 7 July 1864) ;

b) but for architects, contractors, foremen of works, in places where Catholics and non-Catholics have long lived mingled together, it is not lawful except for a grave cause, which mere gain is not, because the co-operation is more principal ;

c) for the same, in places altogether Catholic, in general it is gravely illicit (instr. Card. Vic. of the City, 12 July 1878).

5) The same seems to be said of the lodges of Freemasons or other impious society.

6) To let, however, a house that it may serve the worship of heretics or the meeting of Freemasons or of another impious sect, requires a graver cause, because the co-operation is closer.

765. With regard to the making and selling of things destined for false worship :

1) If they cannot have any other good or indifferent use, it is never lawful, because it is intrinsically evil.

2) If they can have another use but must serve false worship, it can be lawful for a motive so much the graver as the co-operation is greater.

In particular a) in general it is lawful, for a lighter reason, to make organs, chairs, altars, vestments for heretics, because the co-operation is remote ;

b) but if they are expressly and formally requested for an evil use, it will not be lawful except for a grave cause, because the co-operation is closer ; indeed sometimes a most grave cause is required, if the thing is most grave, e.g. to make or sell hosts which the enemies of the Church will abuse ;

c) finally, it is illicit to manufacture idols, sacred vestments destined for superstitious use, superstitious signs, signs and emblems of Freemasons, since these things almost never have a good use ;

d) if these are made for an indifferent or good use, it is lawful, as to make an idol for ornamenting a garden or for stage plays.

766. With regard to non-Catholic religious works or those ordered to false religion :

1) To give them money, either voluntarily, or because they pertain to religion, is never lawful, because it is formally to protect, which is intrinsically evil.

2) To do this under compulsion and without evil intention, if the works are religious (e.g. temple, festivities, ceremonies), as a rule is illicit, unless a) for a very grave cause, because to favor false religion is a co-operation sufficiently close and closer than the building of a temple, and b) provided it is evident that one does not consent to false superstitions or ceremonies (S. C. P. F., 2 July 1827 ; S. O., 21 Apr. 1847) : as e.g. Catholics may do to free themselves from simultaneousness of worship (S. Poen., 1822), and deputies who for the sake of public peace publicly contribute from the public treasury to heretical works as to Catholic works.

3) If they are not ordered only to religion, but have another good end, e.g. education, care of the sick, the poor..., a grave cause would suffice, provided it is not considered as a favor to heresy, scandal is absent, and the money is not used for perverting Catholics. Which will more easily be lawful in places long mixed, than in places altogether Catholic.

4) The same seems to be said of the works of other enemies of the Church, e.g. of liberals, socialists, in regions where these words indicate opposition to the Church.

5) However, it is illicit to give one's name to such societies as directly have an evil end ; but if they are only indirectly ordered to an evil end, and have a directly good end, e.g. economic, it will be lawful for a grave cause and with scandal removed.

So it is illicit to give one's name to theosophical societies (4 July 1919), likewise to the London society « for promoting Christian unity » (18 July 1919), or even to the Y. M. C. A. (5 Nov. 1920), which spreads indifferentism of religions.

767. With regard to evil or prohibited writings : books, periodicals, dictionaries, encyclopedias, magazines, newspapers, and other things of this kind².

A. to be composed : 1) For editors to defend false principles and according to those principles to compose writings is never lawful, because it is immediate cooperation and always a grave sin.

2) To co-operate with articles in themselves indifferent (e.g. on literary, scientific, artistic matters) and indeed frequently or ordinarily is a more or less close co-operation, according as the evil writing is thereby more or less commended and propagated, and therefore it is not lawful except, with scandal removed, and for a more or less grave cause, which is not greater gain, but only gain necessary for sustenance.

3) Sometimes and extraordinarily to insert indifferent articles is a remote co-operation, which, however, is not lawful without cause, but for which a moderately grave cause suffices, which certainly is occasionally to expose or defend good principles or to impede an evil article, provided the reputation of the evil writing is not thereby increased, nor a most evil writing promoted with great scandal to the faithful (can. 1386, § 2).

B. to be printed : 1) It is never lawful for the editor or the owner of the printing house to undertake the printing, because it is not only to co-operate closely but also to induce others to co-operate (can. 2318, § 1).

2) To co-operate most closely in the impression, by directing the typography, setting the types, correcting the printed sheets, is not lawful except in the rarest case, for a short time, and for a grave necessity (which dismissal from service is not) ; except in the case where the book is so evil that it cannot have a good end (12 July 1878).

3) To co-operate more remotely, though quite closely, by placing paper on the type, turning the press, preparing paper or ink, arranging and joining the printed sheets, or delivering them to buyers, moving and caring for the machine, is lawful for a lesser but always grave cause.

4) To act most remotely, e.g. by selling ink, paper, machines, and other things necessary for printing, is lawful for the sake of gain alone.

Hence it follows that there is an obligation to leave a printing house in which almost only evil books and evil periodicals are printed : absolutely for those who co-operate altogether closely ; indeed for those who co-operate more remotely, as for those who work in printing houses in which good and evil books are printed indiscriminately, if they can leave without notable detriment.

C. to be sold (a fortiori to be rented, distributed, conceded) : 1) To sell a prohibited writing which is altogether evil, so that it has no good use, is in no way lawful, except to one who is certainly known to be reading it by office, e.g. an inquisitor.

2) Those which are not evil in every part but contain useful things, either to one who will abuse them, or indiscriminately to all, to expose and sell in offices or in public ways is not lawful except for an very grave inconvenience, and until another means of gaining a livelihood is available³.

3) A fortiori to invite or positively induce to the buying of evil writings is illicit, because it is inducing to sin, and therefore intrinsically evil.

4) To sell copies separately can be lawful for a lesser cause, namely, moderately grave (not for gain alone, or for competition alone) ; indeed it will in no way be illicit if it can be presumed that the buyer has a just cause for reading.

It should be noted, however, that booksellers are not bound to inquire for what purpose books are bought, but they may sell them to all those whom, given the quality of the books, it can be prudently judged they are asking for them ; otherwise too heavy a burden would be imposed (cf. can. 1404).

D. to be exposed : 1) For tavern keepers, innkeepers, hotel owners, barbers to expose altogether evil writings (which are scarcely not adverse to faith or morals) to be read is a grave sin, even if they are asked for by many who for that reason would desert the tavern : the grave harm does not sufficiently compensate for the spiritual ruin of many.

2) It is lawful, to avoid grave harm, to hand over writings which seldom contain something evil, to those who ask to read.

3) For those whom experience shows almost all such writings are asking, and who would otherwise leave the tavern, it will not be illicit to expose them publicly ; it is better to expose good ones at the same time.

E. to be promoted and sustained : 1) To give one's name and buy shares in order to constitute a society for publishing or propagating evil writings⁴, likewise to subscribe to their publication and to sustain it with money, is illicit, because no necessity seems to justify the co-operation ; which is most certain if the writings are expressly impious or evil, or if without the co-operation the society would not be constituted.

2) To subscribe to an already existing society or to a writing already being published, since it is a close co-operation, will not be lawful unless there is a grave cause proportionate to the influence of the co-operation and to the evil to be feared, the danger of scandal and perversion is absent, and the writing is not published manifestly in hatred of religion.

3) To buy a separate issue or a special copy is a remote co-operation, for which, scandal being excluded, a reasonable and even slight cause suffices, e.g. the usefulness of the reading ; and a little greater if it is done frequently. It should be noted, however, that the reading itself is illicit, if it is positively forbidden.

4) To give indifferent announcements about things to be sold, rented, bought, etc. is not lawful unless scandal is excluded, and for a just cause, so much the greater as the announcements cause the writings to be propagated more widely and more easily sustained. When it contributes little, a less grave reason suffices.

768. With regard to the elections of deputies to the assemblies of the realm, province, municipality :

1) Willingly, i.e. from conviction and approval, to elect a candidate hostile to the Church, is gravely illicit, because it is formal co-operation, and therefore intrinsically evil.

2) Merely materially and under compulsion, from fear of evil, to elect such a one is not intrinsically evil, because the mandate which the elector confers is not determined to evil, but the malice or abuse of the elected is ordered to evil ; whence the elector is not the true cause but only the occasion of inflicting evil. Since, however, it is about the very grave evil of religion and society, no cause of utility can excuse such co-operation, but only a grave necessity (which loss of office can be), especially if the outcome of the election appears truly doubtful and perhaps depends on few votes ; in which case at least it will be mortal sin, because then the suffrage can exercise a great influence on a great evil. Therefore friendship of the candidate, or greater expertise, or the benefit hoped for from his election, is not enough ; these do not compensate for the assistance given to a grave harm to the Church or the republic.

3) To abstain from voting is illicit for the same reasons, if, namely, the election of the unworthy can probably be impeded : for it is the negative co-operation of one who does not do what he is bound by office to do, namely legal justice ; indeed it is a grave sin when from this it can probably be feared that a sufficient number of good candidates will not be elected and so great evil be perpetrated by the wicked, or if the abstainer is of such authority that he would lead many by his example and effectively influence the outcome of the election (which rarely happens).

4) To elect a neutral candidate is illicit if from this the election of a good one is probably impeded, or the election of an unworthy one is not impeded ; indeed it can be a grave sin, in the same way as was said in the preceding solution.

5) For a candidate who is asking and compelling, to promise the suffrage but with an internal restriction (as much as I can, and that you may have a right), or to answer in acquiescence, is lawful to avoid grave inconvenience, because then the circumstances suffice to indicate the sense of the answer, namely, that the respondent only intends to free himself from importunate compulsion. Such a promise evidently does not bind.

6) To elect an evil or unworthy candidate, a fortiori a neutral one, can accidentally be lawful, e.g. if there is no hope that the list of good ones will be elected without the evil ones who are contained in the same list also being elected ; likewise if the candidates to be elected are only evil ones ; then indeed the less evil one can be elected, especially if so a greater evil to be feared from others is to be averted.