Summa Theologiae Moralis, vol. I: De Principiis

S. Th. II-II, q. 43, a. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8.

964. Passive scandal or occasioned is sin because it is the very spiritual ruin of a neighbor on the occasion of another's word or deed; but it is not a special sin because from another's word or deed occasion is taken according to any genus of sin and it has no special deformity.

Passive scandal is 1) accepted because given, if the sin of the neighbor truly arises from another's word or deed, or from active scandal; or 2) accepted only, when the sin of the neighbor does not truly arise from another's word or deed, but either a) from the sole malice of the sinner (e.g. from exercises of piety or virtue), and then it is Pharisaic, or b) from his sole ignorance or infirmity, and then it is the scandal of the little ones or of the infirm (e.g. from a woman honestly adorned). Hence S. Thomas notes that sometimes there is passive scandal without active, as Pharisaic; sometimes active without passive, as when one induces another to sin and he does not consent; sometimes active with passive, if from the inducement or bad example of one another sins.

965. Obligation of avoiding passive scandal. — From the law of charity by which we are bound to do good to our neighbor, there is also an obligation, grave of its genus, of avoiding passive scandal, i.e. of omitting those things from which the neighbor will take occasion of sin, whenever there is not sufficient reason for performing the act and permitting the spiritual ruin of the neighbor.

A so much greater cause is required as a graver sin is feared, and as it is more easily and certainly foreseen to follow, and as more are to be scandalized. Hence:

1. it is generally illicit to ask, counsel, command, etc. a work which, although it can be done by another without sin, this one however will not do it without sin either certainly or probably, e.g. an oath from one who will perjure; — unless there is a just cause of necessity or utility, e.g. in case by a judge;

2. a greater cause is required for a cleric to be the occasion of sin and to permit it, than for a layman to permit the same; a greater cause for permitting the scandal of the little ones than the Pharisaic;

3. it is lawful only for the gravest necessity to do a work however otherwise good, which is of itself very inductive to sin, e.g. to bathe or swim naked in public, to exercise the conjugal act publicly; — and if a great multitude of men is feared to be induced to grave sins, even sometimes it must be omitted with the loss of life: namely to avoid a grave necessity of many.

966. Principles and Practical Rules. — Therefore to avoid passive scandal, certain things are to be omitted. And indeed:

I. To avoid scandal accepted because given:

a) Always to be omitted is every work that actively scandalizes, if it is evil.

b) Also in general to be omitted is a work that has only the appearance of evil, unless there is an urgent and grave reason.

This reason ordinarily sufficiently removes the scandal; but if it does not suffice for this, then the occasion of ruin must be removed, as far as is in the power of the agent, e.g. by admonition made to the neighbor about the rectitude of the action because of dispensation, excusing cause, etc.: thus a priest dispensed eating meat on a forbidden day, — or frequenting a suspect person for counsel or administration of sacraments. And if active scandal, i.e. the appearance of evil, cannot be sufficiently removed, one must abstain from the work, whatever some moderns may seem to assert, for S. Thomas says, a. 2: "Active scandal is always a sin in him who scandalizes: because either the work itself which he does is sin; or even if it has the appearance of sin, it must be left always for the charity of the neighbor, from which each one is bound to provide for the salvation of his neighbor: and so he who does not leave off acts against charity".

II. To avoid the scandal of the little ones:

a) Never must nor can be omitted things necessary for salvation (the reception of Baptism or of true faith), nor precepts of the natural law, whether negative (not to lie), or affirmative if the law urges here and now (the precept of confession of faith or of penance), because it is not lawful to do intrinsically evil things that good may come.

b) Precepts of positive law certainly are not to be often omitted, because this would be a grave inconvenience to which charity does not oblige; but probably they are to be omitted once or twice, grave inconvenience being excluded, because the precept of avoiding scandal which is of natural law in itself urges more than positive precepts.

Examples are in S. Alphonsus, l. II, n. 52: "A sin by which you know the confessor is to be gravely scandalized in confession, although from infirmity, you must keep silent... A wife must once or twice omit the fast, from which the husband would be gravely offended, and discord would arise... If, going to Mass, a grave quarrel or fight would be stirred up, you are not bound to go... A superior can dissemble the sins of a subject to avoid disturbances and greater evils which otherwise he would be bound to punish". So also a woman knowing herself to be evilly desired by a certain man, if she would go to Mass on Sunday, could once or twice abstain from the sacred action¹.

c) Works of counsel or indifferent, provided they can be done without great inconvenience, are to be omitted once or twice, or concealed, or delayed for some time until the reason for the work has been rendered to the neighbor; but if after admonition the scandal remains, it is judged Pharisaic.

Hence entry into religion is to be deferred because of the scandal of relatives, if their consent is soon hoped for; one can however rightly enter, if, good motives having been proposed, they continue to resist; — likewise a woman knowing herself to be evilly desired by a certain man, should several times either abstain from hearing Mass not of precept, or lay aside an honest adornment, or not offer herself at the window, or abstain from walking or take another way to flee his sight; — a fortiori she could not be excused from mortal sin, if led by vanity, although she does not intend the scandal of that man, she of set purpose offers herself to his sight, or if she sought some place, which she would not go to, unless she knew her lover was to be there.

III. To avoid Pharisaic scandal:

a) Ordinarily good works are not to be omitted, because thus

the wicked would have occasion to maliciously impede the good, unless however from the delay fruit is hoped for, or there is no cause for doing the work immediately, or the evil feared is far greater than the good that would be obtained by the work, as if a very grave sin were feared in the article of death, or many would sin: thus the punishment of a sinner is sometimes to be left, if schism is feared.

b) Indifferent works are to be omitted, unless there is a just cause, which need not be very grave, e.g. a priest can for a light cause pass by a way where malicious enemies of religious who blaspheme are met.

c) Works of precept cannot be omitted, e.g. a parish priest cannot omit those things which are necessary for the preservation of the goods of the church, because of lawsuits; he is however bound to admonish.

967. Remark. — Temporal goods 1) are not to be given up because of Pharisaic scandal, because thus the wicked would have occasion to plunder, which would harm the common good, and also the plunderers themselves who would remain in sin by retaining another's goods. Hence no one is bound to pay more to a worker because he foresees that he will blaspheme, nor a parish priest to give up his stole fees to prevent the detractions of parishioners, because it is a grave inconvenience for himself and his successors.

2. But for the scandal of the little ones one's own temporal goods are either to be given up, by bestowing them or not demanding them back, provided the sin which is prevented is grave and the loss is light, because the spiritual good of the neighbor is to be preferred to one's own temporal; — or the scandal is to be removed by a charitable admonition or instruction, which admonition having been made, if it persists, it is judged Pharisaic. But the goods of another are not to be given up except by consent of the owner at least reasonably presumed.