Universa Philosophia
Pedro Hurtado de Mendoza (1578–1641)
First published 1624
Hurtado de Mendoza, Universa Philosophia (Lyon 1624): the Summulae and the Logica through Disputatio VII, with an original English translation. The rest of the work follows in later append batches.
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Summulae
Instruction for the Beginner on the Method of Argument
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§ 11
Disputatio I. On the Terms of Propositions, and Their Union.
Aristoteles primo Physicorum
Sectio I. What Are Subject, Predicate, and Union?
§ 1
§ 2
§ 3
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Sectio II. The Definition of Terms.
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Sectio III. On Vocal, Written, and Mental Terms.
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Sectio IV. On Significant and Non-Significant Terms.
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Signum significativum ad placitum
Sectio V. Divisions of the Mental Term.
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Sectio VI. On Universal, Particular, Confused, and Determinate, Superior, and Inferior Terms.
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Sectio VII. On Transcendent and Non-Transcendent Terms.
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Sectio VIII. On Univocal, Equivocal, and Analogous Terms.
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Sectio IX. On Absolute and Connotative Terms.
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Sectio X. On Categorematic and Syncategorematic Terms.
§ 88
Dices categorematicos significare
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Sectio XI. Concrete, Abstract, Complex, and Incomplex; Copulative and Non-Copulative Terms.
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Sectio XII. On Negative and Non-Negative Terms: Contrary and Contradictory.
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Sectio XIII. On Terms of First and Second Intention: Pertinent and Impertinent.
§ 109
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Disputatio II. On the Properties of Terms.
Sectio I. On Supposition.
§ 1
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Sectio II. Formal and Material Supposition.
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Sectio III. Simple and Personal Supposition.
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Sectio IV. Common and Singular Supposition.
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Sectio V. Distributive, Copulate, Determinate, Natural, and Accidental Supposition.
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Sectio VI. On Ascent and Descent.
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Sectio VII. On Ampliation, Restriction, Alienation, and Diminution.
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Sectio VIII. On Appellation.
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Disputatio III. On Speech, Its Parts, and Division.
Sectio I. On the Noun.
§ 1
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Sectio II. On the Verb.
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Sectio III. On Speech.
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Disputatio IV. On the Proposition.
Sectio I. I Define the Proposition.
§ 1
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Sectio II. On the Matter, Quality, and Quantity of the Proposition.
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Sectio III. Categorical, Hypothetical, Complex, and Incomplex Propositions.
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Sectio IV. On the Equipollence of Simple Propositions.
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Sectio V. On the Conversion of the Simple Proposition.
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Sectio VI. On the Opposition of the Simple Proposition.
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Sectio VII. The Preceding Doctrine and the Rules of Opposites Explained.
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Sectio VIII. On the Modal Proposition.
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Sectio IX. Modal Propositions Explained and Described.
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Sectio X. Why Are All Propositions of Each Figure Mutually Equipollent?
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Sectio XI. On the Quantity and Quality of Each Figure.
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Sectio XII. On the Opposition of Each Figure to the Others.
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Sectio XIII. On Exponible and Exclusive Propositions.
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Sectio XIV. Difficulties Concerning This Doctrine.
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Sectio XV. On Exceptive and Reduplicative Propositions.
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Disputatio V. On the Method of Knowing.
§ 1
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Sectio I. On Definition.
§ 3
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Sectio II. On Division.
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Sectio III. On Argumentation.
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Sectio IV. On the Mode and Figure of the Syllogism.
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Sectio V. Ostensive Deduction of Syllogisms.
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Sectio VI. Deduction of Syllogisms to the Impossible.
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Sectio VII. On Consequence.
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Some Terms Explained.
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Logic
Disputatio I: Disputatio I. On the Object of Logic.
Sectio I. On Object and Subject in General.
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Sectio II. The Adequate Matter of Logic.
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Sectio III. Whether Words Are the Object of Logic?
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Subsectio I. Words are not the adequate object of logic.
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Subsectio II. That voices do not inadequately pertain to the logician either.
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Sectio IV. Whether a Being of Reason Is the Object of Logic?
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Subsectio I. Which beings of reason constitute the object of logic.
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Subsectio II. Refutation of the first argument drawn from authority.
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Subsectio III. Arguments for the opinion of Soto and the other Thomists.
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Subsectio IV. The object of logic is real being.
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Sectio V. Whether the Formal or Rather the Objective Method of Knowing Is the Object of Logic.
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Subsectio I. These modes of knowing are explained.
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Subsectio II. The question is resolved.
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Sectio VI. What the Logician Immediately Considers in the Formal Method of Knowing.
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Sectio VII. Whether the Formal Method of Knowing Is Treated by Attribution to the Objective.
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Sectio VIII. On the Adequate Object of Dialectical Attribution.
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Subsectio I. The first opinion.
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Subsectio II.
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Subsectio III. Definition, division, and argumentation are not the adequate object of logic.
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Subsectio IV. Demonstration alone is the adequate object of attribution.
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Sectio IX. Other Matters Concerning the Object of Logic.
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Disputatio II: Disputatio II. How Logic Attains Its Object.
Sectio I. On Logic as Used and as Taught: Whether Each Is a Science?
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Sectio II. Whether Logic Is a Practical Science or a Speculative One?
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Sectio III. Whether Logic Concurs Efficiently in the Acts of Other Sciences?
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Sectio IV. The Utility, Unity, and End of Dialectic.
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Disputatio III: Disputatio III. On the Predicables in General.
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Sectio I. I Premise Certain Points Concerning Universals.
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Sectio II. Whether Predicability Belongs to the Essence of the Universal?
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Sectio III. How Are Universals Predicated?
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Disputatio IV: Disputatio IV. On Genus.
Sectio I. I Define Genus.
§ 1
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Sectio II. Whether the Material Element of Genus Is Common to All Its Inferiors?
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Sectio III. In What Sense Is Genus a Part of Species?
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Sectio IV. In What Sense Is Genus a Whole in Comparison with Species.
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Sectio V. Whether Genus Is Predicated Immediately of Individuals?
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Disputatio V: Disputatio V. On Species and the Individual.
Sectio I. On the Subjectable Species.
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Sectio II. Definition of the Predicable Species.
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Sectio III. Whether the Predicable Species Requires Several Possible Individuals? Subsectio I. The Opinion of the Thomists.
Subsectio I. The opinion of the Thomists.
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Subsectio II. The foundations of his opinion are destroyed.
§ 23
1 The first foundation of this opinion is, because angelic natures are constituted in the predicament, and not as genera or individuals: therefore as predicable species. For a predicament is a coordination of predicables. I answer2 that the angels are constituted in the predicament, because they are truly genera and species multiplicable on the part of reality into several individuals of the same character. Secondly, the generic natures of the angels are constituted: likewise also their lowest species, which by our reason are also individual: nor is another coordination of predicables needed than of those corresponding to the predicates which they have in themselves. But complete individuals are not placed as immediate to the genus, unless when individuation and specific difference are the same in reality and reason, as must be said in that opinion. Finally, let essential difference and individuation be distinguished in reason: I say that the lowest species are placed in the predicament, subjectible to the genus, and predicable of one individual only3: which are therefore excluded from this second predicable requiring several individuals.
§ 24
1 The second foundation: because the nature of Gabriel and of Michael differ in species, and consist of genus and difference: therefore they are predicable species. I answer, the antecedent being distinguished2: they differ in species through individuation, I concede the antecedent: they differ through something distinct from individuation, I deny the antecedent: likewise they consist of a genus and a difference distinct from individuation, I deny the antecedent: of a genus and difference the same as individuation, I concede the antecedent, and I deny the consequence: for those species are subjectible, not predicable. Likewise I answer, the distinction between the essential and the individual difference of the angelic nature being admitted: I grant that those natures differ in species and consist of genus and difference, yet I deny the consequence: because for them to be subjectible species that composition from genus and difference suffices: but for them to be predicable, it was necessary that that difference be possible in several real individuals: which according to the opinion of these authors is repugnant.
§ 25
1 The third argument: because the nature of Michael is conceived as abstracted from singularity; therefore it is conceived as common. First, the antecedent is false, for I shall show that from this opinion the nature of Michael cannot be conceived without its individual difference. Secondly I answer, the distinction between the individual and the specific difference being admitted, that there is no consequence: both because they themselves with their Cajetan2 say that natures even really common, abstracted from singulars, are neither universal nor singular, but are a nature according to itself. And so the nature of Michael, precise from singularity, is not singular, because nothing is singular except through singularity: nor is it likewise common: for that there is required a real potency, a real aptitude, to be in many: which is lacking to that nature: which in that state has no aptitude for being communicated; but an aptitude for one singularity only. Whence in that state they are neither formally singular nor common: but radically they are only singular.
§ 26
1 The fourth foundation is almost a repetition of the third: because the nature of Michael, conceived without singularity, has universality from our intellect: but this is of the second predicable. Therefore. The major is clear, because we conceive spiritual natures through the likeness of material things: but a material nature, precise from singulars, has universality, therefore also a spiritual nature. It is confirmed first2, because the nature of Michael has two functions. One to bear the role of specific principle, and thus it proximately and immediately constitutes the species: the other is to bear the role of individuating principle: but these can be separated in reason. Therefore. It is confirmed secondly3, because God can be conceived by us commonly, precise from singularity, by the mode of conceiving: therefore also an angel. Whence this term, God, is common, according to St. Thomas 1 part, q. 13, art. 94 asserting that he is incommunicable according to reality, but communicable according to reason. Wherefore if in other respects the intention of species is not repugnant to God, on account of his infinity, and because he is his own being, and devoid of genus and difference, in truth from the mode of conceiving he would become a predicable species.
§ 27
1 This whole argument rests on a false principle distinguishing individuation from the specific concept. Hence I answer that, singularity being prescinded from the nature of Gabriel, it remains common generically, not specifically; for it remains predicable of Michael and Gabriel. Secondly I answer, the distinction of singularity from nature being admitted, the major is false. To the proof I answer that singular material natures repugnant to real communication are indeed conceived without universality, and so are spiritual natures. Here note that there is a broad equivocation of the adversary: for we conceive spiritual things through material things, preserving the proportion of both: 2 for we cannot ascribe to spiritual things something repugnant to them, although it belongs to material things. For we conceive the spiritual through material substance, but we do not conceive it as impenetrable or extended: because to conceive spiritual things through material things is to receive the species of spirits from material things, but not to ascribe to them something which they do not have. So we do not receive common spiritual natures through singular material natures: so neither can we conceive intrinsically singular spiritual natures through common corporeal natures; because they have intrinsically opposed predicates. A material nature therefore separated from singularity is common, because on the part of reality it is communicable: but because it is repugnant to an angelic nature, even separated in reason, to be multiplied really on the part of reality, it is not common. But the argument is taken not very openly from a nature really communicable to an incommunicable one, and therefore from the predicate of one nature there is deduced, for another repugnant nature, a property similar to both.
§ 28
1 To the first confirmation from § 26 I answer that there are not two functions distinguished in reason in the essential and individual difference of Gabriel. But these being admitted, I answer that the function of the specific difference is to constitute Gabriel according to himself and quidditatively, likewise also a subjectible species; but not a predicable one, because there is lacking to it a multitude of individuals: in which concept that nature is neither singular nor universal, as I said in § 25. But the function of singularity is to constitute it formally as explicitly singular, which it does not have in the concept of precision.
§ 29
1 The second confirmation from the same § 26 neither savors well nor sounds well: for the true God is not a term of a logic common to several gods. But St. Thomas said that he is common by opinion, that is, in the error that posits several gods. Likewise also that he is common by likeness or imitation, because in names there is found something similar to the divine: but he denies this community, having admitted the words: the divine nature is not communicable except according to participation of likeness. And although God cannot be predicated in the manner of a species, he could nevertheless [be predicated] not in the manner of a species, nor of any of the five predicables, but in the manner of something analogous common to logic: just as a divine person is predicated of several: so God will be absolutely predicable of several gods. How ridiculous this is, let each one ponder in himself.