Universa Philosophia
Pedro Hurtado de Mendoza (1578–1641)
First published 1624
Hurtado de Mendoza, Universa Philosophia (Lyon 1624): the Summulae and the Logica through Disputatio VII, with an original English translation. The rest of the work follows in later append batches.
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Summulae
Instruction for the Beginner on the Method of Argument
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Disputatio I. On the Terms of Propositions, and Their Union.
Aristoteles primo Physicorum
Sectio I. What Are Subject, Predicate, and Union?
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Sectio II. The Definition of Terms.
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Sectio III. On Vocal, Written, and Mental Terms.
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Sectio IV. On Significant and Non-Significant Terms.
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Signum significativum ad placitum
Sectio V. Divisions of the Mental Term.
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Sectio VI. On Universal, Particular, Confused, and Determinate, Superior, and Inferior Terms.
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Sectio VII. On Transcendent and Non-Transcendent Terms.
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Sectio VIII. On Univocal, Equivocal, and Analogous Terms.
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Sectio IX. On Absolute and Connotative Terms.
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Sectio X. On Categorematic and Syncategorematic Terms.
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Dices categorematicos significare
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Sectio XI. Concrete, Abstract, Complex, and Incomplex; Copulative and Non-Copulative Terms.
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Sectio XII. On Negative and Non-Negative Terms: Contrary and Contradictory.
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Sectio XIII. On Terms of First and Second Intention: Pertinent and Impertinent.
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Disputatio II. On the Properties of Terms.
Sectio I. On Supposition.
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Sectio II. Formal and Material Supposition.
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Sectio III. Simple and Personal Supposition.
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Sectio IV. Common and Singular Supposition.
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Sectio V. Distributive, Copulate, Determinate, Natural, and Accidental Supposition.
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Sectio VI. On Ascent and Descent.
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Sectio VII. On Ampliation, Restriction, Alienation, and Diminution.
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Sectio VIII. On Appellation.
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Disputatio III. On Speech, Its Parts, and Division.
Sectio I. On the Noun.
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Sectio II. On the Verb.
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Sectio III. On Speech.
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Disputatio IV. On the Proposition.
Sectio I. I Define the Proposition.
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Sectio II. On the Matter, Quality, and Quantity of the Proposition.
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Sectio III. Categorical, Hypothetical, Complex, and Incomplex Propositions.
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Sectio IV. On the Equipollence of Simple Propositions.
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Sectio V. On the Conversion of the Simple Proposition.
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Sectio VI. On the Opposition of the Simple Proposition.
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Sectio VII. The Preceding Doctrine and the Rules of Opposites Explained.
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Sectio VIII. On the Modal Proposition.
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Sectio IX. Modal Propositions Explained and Described.
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Sectio X. Why Are All Propositions of Each Figure Mutually Equipollent?
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Sectio XI. On the Quantity and Quality of Each Figure.
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Sectio XII. On the Opposition of Each Figure to the Others.
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Sectio XIII. On Exponible and Exclusive Propositions.
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Sectio XIV. Difficulties Concerning This Doctrine.
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Sectio XV. On Exceptive and Reduplicative Propositions.
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Disputatio V. On the Method of Knowing.
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Sectio I. On Definition.
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Sectio II. On Division.
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Sectio III. On Argumentation.
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Sectio IV. On the Mode and Figure of the Syllogism.
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Sectio V. Ostensive Deduction of Syllogisms.
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Sectio VI. Deduction of Syllogisms to the Impossible.
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Sectio VII. On Consequence.
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Some Terms Explained.
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Logic
Disputatio I: Disputatio I. On the Object of Logic.
Sectio I. On Object and Subject in General.
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Sectio II. The Adequate Matter of Logic.
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Sectio III. Whether Words Are the Object of Logic?
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Subsectio I. Words are not the adequate object of logic.
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Subsectio II. That voices do not inadequately pertain to the logician either.
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Sectio IV. Whether a Being of Reason Is the Object of Logic?
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Subsectio I. Which beings of reason constitute the object of logic.
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Subsectio II. Refutation of the first argument drawn from authority.
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Subsectio III. Arguments for the opinion of Soto and the other Thomists.
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Subsectio IV. The object of logic is real being.
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Sectio V. Whether the Formal or Rather the Objective Method of Knowing Is the Object of Logic.
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Subsectio I. These modes of knowing are explained.
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Subsectio II. The question is resolved.
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Sectio VI. What the Logician Immediately Considers in the Formal Method of Knowing.
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Sectio VII. Whether the Formal Method of Knowing Is Treated by Attribution to the Objective.
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Sectio VIII. On the Adequate Object of Dialectical Attribution.
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Subsectio I. The first opinion.
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Subsectio II.
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Subsectio III. Definition, division, and argumentation are not the adequate object of logic.
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Subsectio IV. Demonstration alone is the adequate object of attribution.
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Sectio IX. Other Matters Concerning the Object of Logic.
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Disputatio II: Disputatio II. How Logic Attains Its Object.
Sectio I. On Logic as Used and as Taught: Whether Each Is a Science?
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Sectio II. Whether Logic Is a Practical Science or a Speculative One?
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Sectio III. Whether Logic Concurs Efficiently in the Acts of Other Sciences?
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Sectio IV. The Utility, Unity, and End of Dialectic.
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Disputatio III: Disputatio III. On the Predicables in General.
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Sectio I. I Premise Certain Points Concerning Universals.
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Sectio II. Whether Predicability Belongs to the Essence of the Universal?
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Sectio III. How Are Universals Predicated?
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Disputatio IV: Disputatio IV. On Genus.
Sectio I. I Define Genus.
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Sectio II. Whether the Material Element of Genus Is Common to All Its Inferiors?
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Sectio III. In What Sense Is Genus a Part of Species?
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Sectio IV. In What Sense Is Genus a Whole in Comparison with Species.
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Sectio V. Whether Genus Is Predicated Immediately of Individuals?
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Disputatio V: Disputatio V. On Species and the Individual.
Sectio I. On the Subjectable Species.
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Sectio II. Definition of the Predicable Species.
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Sectio III. Whether the Predicable Species Requires Several Possible Individuals? Subsectio I. The Opinion of the Thomists.
Subsectio I. The opinion of the Thomists.
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Subsectio II. The foundations of his opinion are destroyed.
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Subsectio III. The opposite opinion.
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Sectio IV. Whether Genus Can Be Found in One Species, and This in One Individual?
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Sectio V. On the Individual of First Intention.
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Sectio VI. On the Individual of Second Intention.
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Sectio VII. Whether There Is a Common Account of Individuals.
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Sectio VIII. On the Vague Individual and Its Predicability.
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Sectio IX. The Predication of the Vague Individual.
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Disputatio VI: Disputatio VI. On Difference, Property, and Accident.
Sectio I. I Set Forth the Essence of Difference.
§ 1
1 Distinction differs from difference in this, that the former indicates mere plurality, the latter adds inequality; hence Peter is distinct from Paul, yet not different. Yet they are customarily taken indiscriminately, less properly. There are therefore as many differences as there are grounds in which inequality can exist. In accidents, by which someone differs from himself according to different times or parts, or differs from others according to different accidents, or by the mode which he can have at different times or in different parts. Concerning the most proper difference, by which a thing differs essentially from others, we must dispute in this third predicable. A difference is that which contracts a genus to some species 2, which is composed from it as from a metaphysical form, for because it is act that distinguishes, and adorns the thing, and limits matter from its potentiality in physical things; therefore metaphorically the difference is called act, or form, and the genus matter. It is indeed the form composing the species, and contracting and perfecting the genus. A difference can be considered 3 according to itself, according as pertains to it from its own concept, as rational according as it is the principle of discourse; or it can be considered as a part of the species, and thus also it is conceived as contracting the genus, for it composes the species by contracting it; or it can be considered in relation to its inferiors, and thus it is defined, A difference is a predicable of many in respect of what kind. 4 It differs from genus and species, because these are predicated in quid; but from property and accident, because in quale, and it is a medium between those four, participating something of the extremes, as man between brute and Angel.
§ 2
1 First there offers itself the question by what reason it can be predicated in quale, and in quid, because just as to subsist and to inhere are repugnant, so are in quid and in quale: but they are easily reconciled, for a thing pertaining to the quiddity of the composite can be signified by a quidditative and an adjectival term, because it is signified by the mode of an adjacent thing, and of one existing in another, which is proper to form, which although it subsists, is nevertheless in matter, and matter is not said to be in form. Therefore difference is predicated in quale, as regards the mode of predicating, because it is predicated after the mode of a thing adhering to another, and affecting it, or giving denomination, for just as matter is said to be living from the soul, but the soul does not receive denomination from matter, so rational is not said of animal, but this is said to be rational, because the genus is denominated from the difference, but the difference not from the genus. In which also they imitate matter and physical form, as will be clear in disput. 4 of the Physics, but as regards the thing predicated it is predicated in quid.
§ 3
1 Secondly I object, because irrational is a difference, and is not predicated in quale quid. Someone answers that irrational is predicated in quid of the lion, because it constitutes the brute, which is the genus of the lion, and is predicated in quid of it. 2 On the contrary, because rational constitutes man, who is the species of Peter, and is predicated in quid of him, whereas nevertheless rational is predicated of Peter not in quid, but in quale quid: therefore it will be the same in the case of the argument. 3 It is answered, if irrational is conceived as prescinded from animal, and not constituting the brute with it, and is signified by this term irrational, it is predicated in quale quid of the lion. For it is predicated in the same way of the inferiors as of the species which it constitutes. But of this it is predicated in quale quid: But if it is conceived as composing the brute, and is signified by a substantive name, it is predicated in quid, just as rational is predicated in quid of Peter, when it is signified by this term man.
§ 4
1 I object thirdly. Irrational is the difference of animal, which is divided into rational and irrational, and it is not predicated of the lion in quale quid, because the lion is not essentially constituted by the negation of rationality, but by something positive: therefore difference is not predicated in quale quid. 2 3 I distinguish the antecedent: Irrational, as it formally signifies a negation, is an essential difference of animal; I deny the antecedent. I concede however, as it signifies a positive thing connoting a negation in the oblique. In the first way it is not predicated in quale quid, but in quale. In the second way it is predicated in quale quid.
§ 5
1 Fourthly it is objected. Because Porphyry defines difference otherwise, namely, which is predicated of many differing in species in respect of what kind: therefore not correctly by us. I deny the consequence; because in that matter Porphyry erred shamefully (as more often), handing down the definition of the subaltern difference, omitting the lowest difference, to which the Porphyrian definition is repugnant. Hence he does not define difference as such, either because (as pleases St. Thomas) 2 he was ignorant of the last differences of things, (which seems somewhat difficult) or because he did not think them to be differences. Nor can I bear 3 that Cajetan and Soto are so solicitous about the authority of Porphyry, a man indeed blasphemous and an apostate, who after the manner of a night bird was blind to the light of truth. They assert therefore that that definition agrees with the last difference by non-repugnance, because according to the common account of difference it is not repugnant to it to be predicated of many differing in species, although it is repugnant to it according as it is the last difference.
§ 6
1 But a worse patronage of a bad cause. First, because man could be defined by irrational animal, because irrationality is not repugnant to him according to the common account of animal, although it is repugnant to him according as he is man. Secondly, 2 because property and accident could be defined by the predicable in quid, because that is not repugnant according to the common account of predicable. Thirdly a priori, because two contradictory opposite accounts cannot belong to one thing, one according to the common account, the other according to the particular account; as irrationality cannot belong to man by reason of animal. For what belongs to animality belongs on the part of the thing to man; but that animality is conceived without differences is only, in its formal concept, to abstract from rational and irrational. But when it is contracted to a species, that indifference and abstraction is removed. Hence the difference contrary both positively and by non-repugnance is simply repugnant to the species. Hence irrational is simply and in any way repugnant to man. Hence is taken the fourth reason also a priori, because the definition ought to explain the nature of the thing, and the quiddity specifically, as such, which is by no means provided by that definition. I omit others, because these suffice. Therefore, omitting the Porphyrian definition, which agrees only with the subaltern difference, our definition must be held; which abstracts from both differences, and just as the subaltern difference is predicated in quale quid of many differing in species, and the lowest of those differing in number, so that definition can be contracted by those particles to both differences.