Universa Philosophia
Pedro Hurtado de Mendoza (1578–1641)
First published 1624
Hurtado de Mendoza, Universa Philosophia (Lyon 1624): the Summulae and the Logica through Disputatio VII, with an original English translation. The rest of the work follows in later append batches.
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Summulae
Instruction for the Beginner on the Method of Argument
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Disputatio I. On the Terms of Propositions, and Their Union.
Aristoteles primo Physicorum
Sectio I. What Are Subject, Predicate, and Union?
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Sectio II. The Definition of Terms.
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Sectio III. On Vocal, Written, and Mental Terms.
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Sectio IV. On Significant and Non-Significant Terms.
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Signum significativum ad placitum
Sectio V. Divisions of the Mental Term.
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Sectio VI. On Universal, Particular, Confused, and Determinate, Superior, and Inferior Terms.
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Sectio VII. On Transcendent and Non-Transcendent Terms.
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Sectio VIII. On Univocal, Equivocal, and Analogous Terms.
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Sectio IX. On Absolute and Connotative Terms.
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Sectio X. On Categorematic and Syncategorematic Terms.
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Dices categorematicos significare
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Sectio XI. Concrete, Abstract, Complex, and Incomplex; Copulative and Non-Copulative Terms.
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Sectio XII. On Negative and Non-Negative Terms: Contrary and Contradictory.
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Sectio XIII. On Terms of First and Second Intention: Pertinent and Impertinent.
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Disputatio II. On the Properties of Terms.
Sectio I. On Supposition.
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Sectio II. Formal and Material Supposition.
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Sectio III. Simple and Personal Supposition.
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Sectio IV. Common and Singular Supposition.
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Sectio V. Distributive, Copulate, Determinate, Natural, and Accidental Supposition.
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Sectio VI. On Ascent and Descent.
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Sectio VII. On Ampliation, Restriction, Alienation, and Diminution.
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Sectio VIII. On Appellation.
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Disputatio III. On Speech, Its Parts, and Division.
Sectio I. On the Noun.
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Sectio II. On the Verb.
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Sectio III. On Speech.
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Disputatio IV. On the Proposition.
Sectio I. I Define the Proposition.
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Sectio II. On the Matter, Quality, and Quantity of the Proposition.
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Sectio III. Categorical, Hypothetical, Complex, and Incomplex Propositions.
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Sectio IV. On the Equipollence of Simple Propositions.
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Sectio V. On the Conversion of the Simple Proposition.
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Sectio VI. On the Opposition of the Simple Proposition.
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Sectio VII. The Preceding Doctrine and the Rules of Opposites Explained.
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Sectio VIII. On the Modal Proposition.
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Sectio IX. Modal Propositions Explained and Described.
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Sectio X. Why Are All Propositions of Each Figure Mutually Equipollent?
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Sectio XI. On the Quantity and Quality of Each Figure.
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Sectio XII. On the Opposition of Each Figure to the Others.
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Sectio XIII. On Exponible and Exclusive Propositions.
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Sectio XIV. Difficulties Concerning This Doctrine.
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Sectio XV. On Exceptive and Reduplicative Propositions.
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Disputatio V. On the Method of Knowing.
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Sectio I. On Definition.
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Sectio II. On Division.
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Sectio III. On Argumentation.
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Sectio IV. On the Mode and Figure of the Syllogism.
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Sectio V. Ostensive Deduction of Syllogisms.
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Sectio VI. Deduction of Syllogisms to the Impossible.
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Sectio VII. On Consequence.
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Some Terms Explained.
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Logic
Disputatio I: Disputatio I. On the Object of Logic.
Sectio I. On Object and Subject in General.
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Sectio II. The Adequate Matter of Logic.
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Sectio III. Whether Words Are the Object of Logic?
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Subsectio I. Words are not the adequate object of logic.
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Subsectio II. That voices do not inadequately pertain to the logician either.
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Sectio IV. Whether a Being of Reason Is the Object of Logic?
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Subsectio I. Which beings of reason constitute the object of logic.
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Subsectio II. Refutation of the first argument drawn from authority.
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Subsectio III. Arguments for the opinion of Soto and the other Thomists.
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Subsectio IV. The object of logic is real being.
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Sectio V. Whether the Formal or Rather the Objective Method of Knowing Is the Object of Logic.
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Subsectio I. These modes of knowing are explained.
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Subsectio II. The question is resolved.
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Sectio VI. What the Logician Immediately Considers in the Formal Method of Knowing.
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Sectio VII. Whether the Formal Method of Knowing Is Treated by Attribution to the Objective.
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Sectio VIII. On the Adequate Object of Dialectical Attribution.
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Subsectio I. The first opinion.
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Subsectio II.
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Subsectio III. Definition, division, and argumentation are not the adequate object of logic.
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Subsectio IV. Demonstration alone is the adequate object of attribution.
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Sectio IX. Other Matters Concerning the Object of Logic.
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Disputatio II: Disputatio II. How Logic Attains Its Object.
Sectio I. On Logic as Used and as Taught: Whether Each Is a Science?
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Sectio II. Whether Logic Is a Practical Science or a Speculative One?
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Sectio III. Whether Logic Concurs Efficiently in the Acts of Other Sciences?
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Sectio IV. The Utility, Unity, and End of Dialectic.
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Disputatio III: Disputatio III. On the Predicables in General.
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Sectio I. I Premise Certain Points Concerning Universals.
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Sectio II. Whether Predicability Belongs to the Essence of the Universal?
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Sectio III. How Are Universals Predicated?
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Disputatio IV: Disputatio IV. On Genus.
Sectio I. I Define Genus.
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Sectio II. Whether the Material Element of Genus Is Common to All Its Inferiors?
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Sectio III. In What Sense Is Genus a Part of Species?
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Sectio IV. In What Sense Is Genus a Whole in Comparison with Species.
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Sectio V. Whether Genus Is Predicated Immediately of Individuals?
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Disputatio V: Disputatio V. On Species and the Individual.
Sectio I. On the Subjectable Species.
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Sectio II. Definition of the Predicable Species.
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Sectio III. Whether the Predicable Species Requires Several Possible Individuals? Subsectio I. The Opinion of the Thomists.
Subsectio I. The opinion of the Thomists.
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Subsectio II. The foundations of his opinion are destroyed.
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Subsectio III. The opposite opinion.
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Sectio IV. Whether Genus Can Be Found in One Species, and This in One Individual?
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1 Against the second point: that hypothesis destroys through an intrinsic locus this species of angelic nature, and deals with another entirely different one. For a species which would have several possible individuals would not be through an intrinsic locus a complete subsisting act, but would express an order to matter: but this angelic species is a complete subsisting act, expressing no order to matter: therefore that [hypothesis] through an intrinsic locus would not be this species. The major is proved: because according to this opinion every nature multiplicable only in number in its inferiors is about matter: because every numerical multiplication is taken essentially from matter: therefore from the very formal concept of a nature multiplicable only in number, its materiality is concluded: and consequently it would not be this nature, but another: therefore this solution does not fit this nature, but another. Wherefore I have said rather often that these authors did not understand the foundations of their own opinion.
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It is established from section 3 that for the account of a universal there is required a multitude of inferiors of which it can be predicated. Now it is asked whether in each one of the inferiors the whole formal account of the superior is found? as the whole species in one individual? and the whole genus in one species? It is not controverted whether in any inferior there is the superior account? as animal in man, for it is an affirmative part without controversy. For Peter, for example, is a man, in which he agrees with Paul, and is an animal, in which he agrees with the lion. Nor do we controvert whether in one individual the whole universal account is saved formally, without connotation to other individuals? for it is a settled negative part, because a universal formally is one in many and of many. But we bring into question whether the whole perfection of the species is in one individual? and whether in one species there is the whole perfection of the genus?
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I say first that in the opinion of the Thomists, which admits objective abstractions, the whole perfection of the genus and of the species is found in one individual.1 It is proved first, because in that opinion there is the same specific account abstracted from all individuals, and the same generic account abstracted from the species: therefore these accounts are found equally perfectly in one inferior as in several. The consequence is clear; because in several there is found the same account entirely common through the intellect. Secondly, because the account of animal in this opinion is entirely similar in all, because, if it were dissimilar, it could not be one abstracted [account]. Thirdly, because in the opinion of Scotus, who distinguishes by the nature of the thing the lower grades from the higher, this conclusion would have to be followed: therefore also in the opinion of the Thomists, because the unity by the nature of the thing (which Scotus admits) they admit through the intellect. But if you object that the animality of man is more perfect than that of the horse. The answer is that this is not in the account of animal, but in the account of such [an animal], which perfection does not come from the generic account, but from the specific.
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1 I say secondly: In the opinion of the Nominalists who deny those abstractions, the species is not extensively as perfect in one as in several individuals, because the species comprehends them and extends itself immediately to all its individuals, which are extensively more perfect than one, which is to be asserted a fortiori of the genus.
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1 I say thirdly: in the opinion which asserts that the generic account formally is more perfect in one species than in another, and that among two individuals of the same species one is substantially more perfect than the other, it must be asserted that neither is the genus perfectly contained in one species, nor the species in one individual. It is proved, because if the animality of man is formally more perfect than the animality of the lion, and the humanity of Christ more noble than the humanity of Judas, it is certain that neither does animal have its whole perfection in the lion, nor humanity in Judas. Indeed, in everyone's opinion it is true that animality is not as perfect in the lion as in man, whether this comes about by reason of the genus or by reason of the species.
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But if you hold that all individuals of the same species are altogether substantially similar, while species are substantially dissimilar in their generic character: it must be said that the genus is not perfectly contained in one species, because it is found more perfectly in another; but that the species is equally substantially perfect in one individual as in all, because two men, for example, do not substantially and intensively make one more perfect than one, since each is altogether equal.
§ 47
1 It is without controversy true that superior ratios are accidentally more perfect in many than in one, because in many they have more perfection than in one alone. Likewise I judge it true that, as regards the foundation of predicability and universality, genus and species are found equally perfectly in one as in many inferiors. This is proved because from any man the ratio of man can be abstracted, whose foundation is rational operation, and from any animal the ratio of animal can be abstracted, whose foundation is sensitive operation, and that ratio thus abstracted, or confusedly conceived, can be predicated of many equally as if it had been abstracted from those more perfect things, or known in them, because those operations are common to all inferiors. That this happens in fact is proved because often we abstract common generic ratios from less perfect species, because no species is so perfect that another within the same genus cannot be more perfect, and of those which in fact exist we have not known the more perfect, nor can we judge them in the genera of irrational things. Therefore the genus animal is denominated as abstracted from a lion as from a man. Let it stand therefore that, as far as predicability is concerned, universals are equally perfect in one inferior as in another, although physically it is not so.
§ 48
1 You will say that the foundation of abstraction is the agreement of several in one ratio, and their difference in another: therefore a common ratio cannot be abstracted from one inferior. 2 But I will show, in Disputation 5 on metaphysics, section 9, that universals are abstracted even from one confusedly known individual, because the foundation of abstraction is the distinction of operations, or of other connotates, although the agreement or difference of several does not appear, as infinite mercy is distinguished from justice through effects, although there are not several infinite mercies, nor several justices.