Universa Philosophia
Pedro Hurtado de Mendoza (1578–1641)
First published 1624
Hurtado de Mendoza, Universa Philosophia (Lyon 1624): the Summulae and the Logica through Disputatio VII, with an original English translation. The rest of the work follows in later append batches.
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Summulae
Instruction for the Beginner on the Method of Argument
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Disputatio I. On the Terms of Propositions, and Their Union.
Aristoteles primo Physicorum
Sectio I. What Are Subject, Predicate, and Union?
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Sectio II. The Definition of Terms.
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Sectio III. On Vocal, Written, and Mental Terms.
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Sectio IV. On Significant and Non-Significant Terms.
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Signum significativum ad placitum
Sectio V. Divisions of the Mental Term.
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Sectio VI. On Universal, Particular, Confused, and Determinate, Superior, and Inferior Terms.
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Sectio VII. On Transcendent and Non-Transcendent Terms.
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Sectio VIII. On Univocal, Equivocal, and Analogous Terms.
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Sectio IX. On Absolute and Connotative Terms.
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Sectio X. On Categorematic and Syncategorematic Terms.
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Dices categorematicos significare
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Sectio XI. Concrete, Abstract, Complex, and Incomplex; Copulative and Non-Copulative Terms.
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Sectio XII. On Negative and Non-Negative Terms: Contrary and Contradictory.
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Sectio XIII. On Terms of First and Second Intention: Pertinent and Impertinent.
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Disputatio II. On the Properties of Terms.
Sectio I. On Supposition.
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Sectio II. Formal and Material Supposition.
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Sectio III. Simple and Personal Supposition.
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Sectio IV. Common and Singular Supposition.
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Sectio V. Distributive, Copulate, Determinate, Natural, and Accidental Supposition.
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Sectio VI. On Ascent and Descent.
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Sectio VII. On Ampliation, Restriction, Alienation, and Diminution.
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Sectio VIII. On Appellation.
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Disputatio III. On Speech, Its Parts, and Division.
Sectio I. On the Noun.
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Sectio II. On the Verb.
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Sectio III. On Speech.
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Disputatio IV. On the Proposition.
Sectio I. I Define the Proposition.
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Sectio II. On the Matter, Quality, and Quantity of the Proposition.
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Sectio III. Categorical, Hypothetical, Complex, and Incomplex Propositions.
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Sectio IV. On the Equipollence of Simple Propositions.
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Sectio V. On the Conversion of the Simple Proposition.
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Sectio VI. On the Opposition of the Simple Proposition.
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Sectio VII. The Preceding Doctrine and the Rules of Opposites Explained.
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Sectio VIII. On the Modal Proposition.
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Sectio IX. Modal Propositions Explained and Described.
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Sectio X. Why Are All Propositions of Each Figure Mutually Equipollent?
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Sectio XI. On the Quantity and Quality of Each Figure.
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Sectio XII. On the Opposition of Each Figure to the Others.
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Sectio XIII. On Exponible and Exclusive Propositions.
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Sectio XIV. Difficulties Concerning This Doctrine.
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Sectio XV. On Exceptive and Reduplicative Propositions.
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Disputatio V. On the Method of Knowing.
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Sectio I. On Definition.
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Sectio II. On Division.
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Sectio III. On Argumentation.
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Sectio IV. On the Mode and Figure of the Syllogism.
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Sectio V. Ostensive Deduction of Syllogisms.
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Sectio VI. Deduction of Syllogisms to the Impossible.
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Sectio VII. On Consequence.
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Some Terms Explained.
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Logic
Disputatio I: Disputatio I. On the Object of Logic.
Sectio I. On Object and Subject in General.
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Sectio II. The Adequate Matter of Logic.
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Sectio III. Whether Words Are the Object of Logic?
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Subsectio I. Words are not the adequate object of logic.
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Subsectio II. That voices do not inadequately pertain to the logician either.
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Sectio IV. Whether a Being of Reason Is the Object of Logic?
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Subsectio I. Which beings of reason constitute the object of logic.
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Subsectio II. Refutation of the first argument drawn from authority.
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Subsectio III. Arguments for the opinion of Soto and the other Thomists.
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Subsectio IV. The object of logic is real being.
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Sectio V. Whether the Formal or Rather the Objective Method of Knowing Is the Object of Logic.
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Subsectio I. These modes of knowing are explained.
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Subsectio II. The question is resolved.
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Sectio VI. What the Logician Immediately Considers in the Formal Method of Knowing.
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Sectio VII. Whether the Formal Method of Knowing Is Treated by Attribution to the Objective.
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Sectio VIII. On the Adequate Object of Dialectical Attribution.
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Subsectio I. The first opinion.
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Subsectio II.
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Subsectio III. Definition, division, and argumentation are not the adequate object of logic.
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Subsectio IV. Demonstration alone is the adequate object of attribution.
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Sectio IX. Other Matters Concerning the Object of Logic.
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In whatever faculty there is found a habit of principles, which terminates at the essence of a thing: which habit is properly definitive: for from it the definition and quidditative cognition flow. Likewise there is found a habit of conclusions, which terminates at the property and passion of a thing. The object of the habit of principles is the formal object, or the objective formal reason previously known: for for that reason it is called the habit of principles, because its object is the principle, and the premises in the syllogism. But the object of the habit of conclusions is the material object, because it depends in its cognition on the object of the habit of principles, as I said the conclusion depends on the premises. In logic there are found just as many habits: the habit of principles, which is borne into the essence of the mode of knowing, and of the other things which are considered in logic. The habit of conclusions terminates at the properties of the same things. Hence also from sect. 1 I gather that the formal object of logic is the essence of the formal and objective mode of knowing. But its material object is the properties, because the essence previously known is the middle term in demonstration, and the property is the conclusion, which depends in its cognition on the middle term.
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You will say. The formal mode of knowing is the form denominating the objective mode, therefore only the formal will be the formal object, and the objective will be the material object. I deny the consequence, because two things, of which one is the form of the other, can at the same time be the formal object, because each is known at the same time and immediately. For it is not considered whether one part is the form of the other, but whether each is necessary for the first cognition and for inferring the properties. Thus matter and form are in physics the formal object, because from each the cognition of the properties is inferred. Thus, although the formal mode of knowing is the form by which the objective mode is denominated, nevertheless because each is attained through the habit of principles, and concerning each attributes are shown; therefore each is the formal object, although the formal is the formal reason by which the objective mode is constituted in the character of object. Just as a living body is the formal object of the science of the soul, although by the soul it is formally constituted living, because from each the properties are shown.
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It is also gathered from what has been said that the office of the logician is to direct the acts of the intellect,1 as that of the physician is to cure wounds. It is confirmed, because there is given one virtue whose office is to direct the acts of the will, which is the office of prudence; but similarly the intellective faculties can err in their acts, as the appetitive ones can; therefore they also need some faculty which directs them. This direction is nothing besides the logical acts themselves,2 by which we are taught the nature of the mode of knowing; but on the part of the object it is the very mode of knowing which we are taught, which can be called passive direction, because it is the object of active direction, as when someone directs a traveler, the object of such direction is the way by which he must go.
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We have excluded simple apprehension from the object, even a partial one, because it is not a mode of knowing:1 for no one is said to know unless he gives assent or dissent to the object; whence the simple apprehension of animal and rational is not formally a definition, because this is assent, without which there is no science. Nor do I know now that the Turk is sleeping, however much I apprehend it. Animal and rational are indeed an objective definition, but compared to judgment. We have also excluded beings of reason as denominating forms.2 In this regard, note that the logician teaches the nature of the mode of knowing, regarding which one can err in two ways.3 First, by affirming that the formal mode of knowing is a form inherent in the objective mode:4 which is a lie; and the being of reason belongs to the books On the Soul, because it belongs to the same books to prove that the formal mode of knowing is an extrinsic denomination in the object. But the logician does not care about this. Second, one can err by asserting that a definition, for example, does not consist of genus and difference;5 this error and being of reason ought to be corrected by the logician by explaining the account of definition, which is to treat indirectly and secondarily of a being of reason, materially only, not formally; for to treat of it formally is to explain its nature, how it comes about, etc. That belongs to Metaphysics alone. Otherwise all practical sciences would treat of a being of reason, because one errs regarding their objects. To be sure, it belongs to them to correct errors regarding their objects, but not to teach what a being of reason is, or in what way it comes about, etc.
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Nor will it be difficult to gather from what has been said in what way dialectic is useful to the other sciences.1 For since it teaches the mode of knowing in common, from the cognition of it the intellect easily forms any argumentation or mode of knowing whatever, because common rules suffice for directing any power, as is clear in architecture. Then it is gathered that dialectical cognition is reflexive,2 because it has for its object the cognition of the same power: indeed, all the precepts which dialectic teaches agree with the dialectical acts themselves, because those too are a mode of knowing; and just as the logician teaches arguing in another faculty, by the same precepts he teaches arguing in logical matter. Indeed, he teaches arguing in no other way than by arguing: just as, when someone teaches another to speak or to write, he does this by speaking or writing.