Scotus Academicus, Tomus octavus: De Divino Gratiae Beneficio, et initium De Virtutibus Theologicis

NOTE 1. That the object of faith can be taken in a threefold way: First indeed, for the very object of faith both material and formal, inasmuch namely as it signifies all the things to be believed on account of divine veracity. Second, for the external proposition whereby we announce something of the subject of faith, affirming or denying. Third, for the very concept of the mind, whereby we conceive the objects of faith. It is certain however that the object of faith taken in the first way, if it be understood of the primary object, since it is God Himself, is an altogether simple thing; but if it be taken for the secondary objects together with the primary, it is indeed complex: for thus it embraces all those things which can be set before the intellect to be known through faith. ⟦illegible: Luare?⟧ the whole difficulty seems to be about the object of faith on the side either of the knower, or of the speaker.

It must moreover be observed that the complexity, which is found in the mode of conceiving of the human intellect, does not proceed from this, that its object is expressed through several words: for this bears accidentally upon whether a mental complexity is to be posited or not posited, as de Lugo observes best, d. 3. sect. 2. num. 33. For it is accidental that now words are so destined to signify that we need several words to express one mental proposition: just as the Chinese do not have an Alphabet as we do, from whose characters all our words are formed, but have characters signifying an entire word; so it could come about that single words were instituted for single entire propositions, such that one simple word would signify this whole complex, man is rational, and as such would represent the mental proposition complexly, which would be made by the composition of the predicate with the subject. On the contrary however it can come about that the concept be incomplex, although it be expressed by us through complex words: thus for example an Angel apprehends by one simple concept the union of the rational soul with the human body, which nevertheless we cannot express, namely the union, the body, and the soul, except through several words; and consequently, just as a complex concept can be expressed by a single word, so also an incomplex concept can be uttered by a complex enunciation.

NOTE 2. That the principal mysteries and objects of faith are contained in certain articles and symbols. Now an article, as Richard of Saint Victor says, Is an incisible truth concerning God constraining us to believe, that is, directing the intellect with respect to all those things which are commonly to be believed; or according to Saint Isidore, An article is a perception of divine truth, tending toward it itself; that is, an article is that which illumines us unto perceiving divine truth, and moves the intellect to believe it. Hence under the name of Articles are understood not indeed all the revealed truths which are contained in Sacred Scripture, or in Councils, but the principal chapters of the same: for just as the structure of the human body is sustained and connected by certain limbs and articulations, lest it dissolve and perish; so in our faith there are certain things more principal and capital, which if they were dissolved, silently the whole fabric of faith would perish and fall. Now Symbolum is a Greek word, which signifies sign or indication and collection: thus in military art the sign which is given to soldiers, that they may recognize one another and be distinguished from enemies, is called a Symbolum: although also properly the name Symbol is used to signify the collection which is wont to be made from the union of many for some work. Moreover for both these reasons the name of Symbol is used by the Church to signify a brief summary, or rule of faith gathered from various articles of things to be believed and proposed to the faithful, whereby they may recognize one another and be distinguished from heretics. Now it is called a Symbol by Augustine, or by him who is the author of Serm. 115. De Tempore: The comprehension of our faith is simple, brief, and full: that simplicity may provide for rudeness, brevity for memory, and fullness for doctrine. But a threefold Symbol above all is admitted in the Church: first indeed the Apostolic, which was composed by the Apostles before they were divided into various provinces, as shall be proved within: the second is called Nicene, which was ordained for the most part in the Council of Nicaea, that the Faithful might profess more explicitly certain articles impugned by heretics, and therefore on account of the error of Arius especially, who denied the divinity of the Son, this was declared more explicitly in the Nicene Symbol. But when Macedonius afterwards impugned the Divinity of the Holy Spirit, the Council of Constantinople added to the former Nicene Symbol, after those words, Et in Spiritum sanctum: Dominum, et vivificantem, qui cum Patre, et Filio simul adoratur, et conglorificatur: qui locutus est per Prophetas. And also those words: De Spiritu sancto ex Maria Virgine. Likewise also that: Cuius regni non erit finis. The third Symbol is called of Saint Athanasius, who although he had not the authority of composing a symbol, yet because that formula, whereby he explicitly professed his faith, clearly and brightly declared the principal articles of faith, it not only pleased and was approved by the supreme Pontiffs, to whom he had directed it, but moreover was accepted by the whole Church: and therefore it obtained the name and force of a Symbol. But that Athanasius was the author of this Symbol stands from Saint Gregory Nazianzen in the Oration De laudibus Athanasii: as also from Saint Augustine on Psal. 120. and from the consensus of the whole Church, which solemnly recites this Symbol in the name of Saint Athanasius on the days of the

NOTE 3. That the objects of faith can be regarded in a twofold way, namely either in the being of the thing, or inasmuch as they are things constituted by their own native principles and properties; or in the being of the credible, inasmuch namely as they are proposed to the intellect to be believed through faith. But things in the being of the credible can have among themselves a various order, namely either an order of existence, or of dignity, or of the habitude of one to another, or of dependence or emanation of one from another. It is certain however, says the Doctor in 3. dist. 23, that there is some order among the credibles themselves: first, according to the being of existence, because certain things are prior in existing than others, namely divine than created, necessary than contingent, and eternal than temporal. Second, according to the being of dignity, for some things are more worthy and more noble in their entity, as those which pertain to God in Himself, as also those which pertain to Christ the Lord, for these far excel the other things which are apprehended through faith. Third, neither is there doubt concerning the order of necessity: for some things are necessary simply, as the essence and attributes of God: likewise the immortality of the soul, its rationality, and similar things: others are contingent, as the creation of the world, the passion of Christ, etc. Finally there is no doubt concerning the order of duration, since some things are eternal, and from eternity, others temporal but past, others future. The whole difficulty could be concerning the order in the being of the credible, namely whether the credibility of some objects depends upon the faith of others, which must first be supposed believed. But there can be compared either the material objects of faith among themselves, such that the faith of some objects depends objectively upon the faith of others, nor are any believed except on account of others; or the formal objects can be compared among themselves, namely divine truth in knowing with truth in saying; or finally the material with the formal, namely the things to be believed with the motive of credibility.

These things therefore premised for the sake of clarity, three things are here to be resolved: First, whether the object of faith be complex or incomplex, both on the side of the act, whereby it is believed, and on the side of the thing, which is known through faith. Second, whether there be some order among the objects both material and formal of faith. Third, whether all the objects of faith be included distinctly and sufficiently in the symbol of the Apostles.

First Conclusion. — THE OBJECT OF FAITH BOTH ON THE SIDE OF THE THING BELIEVED AND ON THE SIDE OF THE ACT OF THE BELIEVER CAN BE COMPLEX, OR INCOMPLEX.

The truth of this conclusion is evident from the first and second Notable; for truly certain things are most simple objects of faith, both in themselves, and in their apprehension, namely divine eternity, wisdom, and the other attributes of God, which just as they are in themselves altogether simple, so can they be perceived by a simple and unique act of faith. But certain things are complex only in themselves, not indeed according to their apprehension: thus for example in that assent of faith: Man duly prepared, by making the sacred Synaxis receives an increase of grace, the object, or objective proposition is complex, which nevertheless is apprehended by a single and incomplex act of faith. But certain things are complex both in themselves, and according to their apprehension, for example The disciples of Christ the Lord on the day of Pentecost received the fullness of the Holy Spirit; this objective proposition of faith is complex in itself, for it involves two predicates and subjects: first, that the Apostles received the fullness of the Holy Spirit: second, that they received it on the day of Pentecost. It is also complex according to assent; forsooth while there are acts of the intellect at least partial, whereby assent is given to this proposition, which is virtually double, although formally it may seem one. But if the assent of faith be considered on the side of the act of the intellect composing and dividing, or affirming or denying, or apprehending the revealed truths through composition or negation of the predicate with the subject, it is certain on this account that faith is complex both on the side of the object, and on the side of the act: both because men receive the objects to be believed in no other way than through human words, whereby they represent the objects complexly, namely through propositions consisting of subject and predicate, which since they generate species similar to the object and predicate apt for producing distinct apprehensions of the extremes, hence it is that there follows a complex assent composing the predicate with the subject. ⟦illegible: Idde qunl?⟧ says de Lugo, disp. 3. sect. 2. n. 16, whenever the truth of a proposition does not appear clearly, but is to be believed on account of another medium and motive, it is necessary that there intervene a discourse at least virtual for assenting to it: since therefore the revealed truths are such, it is necessary that we assent to them, that it be done through a discourse at least virtual, inferring namely from this, that those things which God says are true, and that God has revealed this thing to be, the consequence is that it is true: but where there is discourse, it is necessary that there be complexity, both on the side of the object, and on the side of the assent. Therefore in every composite act of faith it is necessary that there intervene complexity on the side of the act and of the object.

Second Conclusion. — ALL THE MATERIAL OBJECTS ALIKE REGARD FAITH IMMEDIATELY; YET CERTAIN ONES SEEM TO PERTAIN TO IT MORE PRINCIPALLY THAN OTHERS. This according to the truth of the thing ought to be common as regards both parts, although some seem verbally to dissent:

The first part stands; for all the objects of faith alike rest upon the formal motive of credibility, namely the truth of God in knowing and saying, and alike immediately are revealed by God, and proposed by the Church, for neither does the Church have greater infallibility in proposing one object than in another, nor ought less to be believed to God when He reveals one object than while He reveals another, since He is not less truthful by reason of the one than of the other: therefore all the objects of faith are credible by equal reason.

You will say 1. God does not affirm all things equally, for some He merely enunciates simply, but others with an oath: therefore not all revealed things demand an equal faith.

I deny the consequence; since perjury conflicts no less with God than lying; for each of these directly militates against His supreme veracity: whence although He accommodates Himself to our infirmity, at times He may use an oath, that He may provoke our assent in a more efficacious manner: nevertheless that oath does not denote a greater truth of some thing than if He should merely enunciate and reveal it. ⟦illegible: Idde qund?⟧ every revelation of God and attestation of truth could be judged an oath: forsooth since God ⟦illegible: rii?⟧ attests the truth of the revealed by Himself, He wills it to be believed on account of His veracity, which properly is to swear.

You will say 2. Not all things which are revealed are equally true: therefore not all are equally credible. The antecedent is evident, for those things which are purely divine are truer than created things. For they are more necessary and more beings, and consequently have greater truth, and consequently are more credible. It is confirmed by the example of charity well regulated and ordered; for this loves more those things which have greater goodness: therefore also faith ought to believe more those things which have greater and firmer truth.

I answer, granting the antecedent, by distinguishing the consequence: those things ought to be believed more which have greater truth, when the motive of believing is the very proper truth of the object believed evidently appearing through itself, pass over: when the motive of believing is another truth, which is participated equally by other true objects, revealed, and known through faith, I deny. Since therefore the ultimate motive of faith is not the truth of the object believed evidently appearing, but the veracity and testimony of God, all things alike are credible to which this motive belongs equally: but all revealed things equally participate the motive of credibility, because God is equally infallible and truthful in revealing one object and others: and consequently faith believes all things on account of the same motive. To the confirmation it may be said that the argument can be retorted, for just as charity does not always provoke to loving those creatures which are in themselves more perfect, and which participate more of divine goodness and perfection, but those from which a greater glory of God arises, because the ultimate motive of loving on account of charity is not the very perfection of the creature, but the goodness and glory of God: whence if from the creation of man a greater glory of God resulted than from the creation of an Angel, on the motive of charity one ought to love man more than an Angel: therefore just as charity loves equally those things from which an equal glory of God results, so faith ought to believe equally all things credible, because in them the divine veracity appears equally.

The second part also stands: since indeed among the objects credible some are more noble, namely those which are divine; others less noble, such as are all created things, among which moreover there is a multiple and various order of dignity according to their greater or lesser perfection; hence it is that just as the natural light of the intellect inclines more toward knowing a truth more noble, so also the light of faith will incline the intellect more concerning the things to be believed that are divine, than concerning those which are purely created. From these things therefore it follows that the material objects of faith can be believed separately from one another, when they have no natural dependence, nor is one essentially and necessarily presupposed to the other from the nature of the thing: since all those objects are revealed by God equally, and thus equally vindicate to themselves infallibility from the veracity and revelation of God. I said, when one does not necessarily and naturally presuppose the other: for there are certain objects which, that they be believed, suppose the faith of others, upon which they necessarily depend: thus I cannot believe that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, unless I believe that in God there are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; nor that God is a remunerator, unless I believe Him to exist; nor that all men will rise again, unless I believe all men will die; for resurrection supposes death essentially. But if the formal objects of faith be compared among themselves, for example the truth of God in knowing with His truth in saying and revealing, they preserve some order in their existence, but not in the being of the credible: forsooth it is prior that God be true in knowing than in speaking: for truth in knowing is eternal, divine, and intrinsic to God: but truth in speaking and revealing is temporal, and extrinsic to God. In the being however of the credible they say there is no order of prior or posterior: since they serve one another mutually, that they be believed, since neither can be believed except on account of the other, namely veracity on account of revelation, and revelation on account of veracity. If finally the material objects of faith be compared with the formal, it is certain that they ought to preserve order mutually in the ratio of the credible; for the material depend upon the formal, that they be believed: since the motives of veracity and revelation are not believed on account of the material objects, but contrariwise the material are believed on account of those motives. But all these things are lighter than that we should linger longer in them.

Third Conclusion. — THE OBJECTS TO BE BELIEVED ARE CONTAINED SUFFICIENTLY IN THE SYMBOL OF THE APOSTLES AS REGARDS SUBSTANCE.

It is proved: The sum of the things to be regarded most in believing looks to God subsisting in His Divinity, or in our humanity, according to that of John 17. Haec est vita aeterna, ut cognoscant te solum Deum verum, et quem misisti Iesum Christum. But those two chapters of things to be believed are explained expressly in the Symbol, and those things which look to the knowledge of each are declared sufficiently in it, as Saint Augustine testifies, Serm. 181. De tempore: The Symbol, he says, is brief in words, but great in sacraments; whatever has been handed down in the Scriptures concerning God and Christ is contained in the Symbol. Which truth indeed the Alensis proves and elucidates excellently, q. 96. memb. 5. art. 1. and the Seraphic Doctor in 3. dist. 25. art. 1. q. 1, where he proves the sufficiency of the things to be believed contained in the Symbol both on the side of the Authors composing it; and on the side of the Articles of faith containing truths. On the side indeed of the Authors composing it:

Because, he says, the universality of the Apostles convened there, than which there is no doubt something could not lie hidden of those things which pertain to the complement of faith. And that they might have greater firmness, each placed there his own part, and all together approved the individual parts: that one Church, which was to be founded upon the Apostles, might have one credulity and confession of faith, whereby indeed it would be called the Catholic faith, that is, the universal faith. Universal, I say, because given to all, and constituted by all the Apostles, who were the foundation of the universal Church. Whence Peter first saying his own particle: Credo in Deum Patrem omnipotentem Creatorem caeli et terrae. Second Andrew subjoined: Et in Iesum Christum Filium eius unicum Dominum nostrum. Third John added: Qui conceptus est de Spiritu sancto, natus ex Maria Virgine. Fourth James the Greater brought in: Passus sub Pontio Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus, et sepultus. Fifth Thomas subjoined: Descendit ad inferna, tertia die resurrexit a mortuis. Sixth James the Less adds: Ascendit ad caelos, sedet ad dexteram Dei Patris omnipotentis. Seventh Philip added: Inde venturus est iudicare vivos et mortuos. Eighth Bartholomew brought in: Credo in Spiritum sanctum. Ninth Matthew subjoined: Sanctam Ecclesiam Catholicam. Tenth Simon Chanaanaeus added: Sanctorum communionem. Because in the communion of Saints is the remission of sins. Eleventh Judas Thaddaeus superadded: Carnis resurrectionem. And the sense is, that God will raise up that flesh itself. Twelfth Matthias completed: Vitam aeternam. Amen. And thus the Apostles in full and integral number of twelve composed that Symbol, when they were gathered together. Nevertheless it can also be taken on the side of the constituent articles, since indeed all articles are concerning God, either according as He is in His proper nature, or according as He is united to human nature, it is necessary that certain articles look to the Divinity; certain ones to the humanity. But those which look to the Divinity, either regard the divine essence in itself, or regard the persons or hypostases of the divine essence, or regard its operations. If they regard the divine essence itself in itself, thus there is one article, according as the divine essence is one and simple, and this is intimated when it is said: Credo in Deum. But if they regard the persons or hypostases of the divine essence, according as there are three persons, there are three articles. One of which is: Credo in Deum Patrem omnipotentem. Another truly is noted when it is said: Et in Iesum Christum Filium eius unicum Dominum nostrum. Another when it is said: Credo in Spiritum sanctum. But if they regard the operations of the divine essence, this can be in a threefold way, according as its operation is threefold: one of which is in the confe> rring of nature, and this is creation. Another in the confe> rring of grace, and this is sanctification. The third is in the confe> rring of glory, and this is the glorious resurrection. And according to this then there are three articles: one of which is noted when it is said: Credo in Creatorem caeli et terrae. Another when it is said: Sanctam Ecclesiam Catholicam, sanctorum communionem, remissionem peccatorum. Another when it is said: Carnis resurrectionem. Et vitam aeternam. Amen. And thus there are seven articles concerning the Divinity regarding the divine essence itself in itself, and in its persons, and in its works. And their sufficiency is evident, because it cannot itself be considered in more ways. Similarly concerning the humanity only seven principal articles are found, according to the seven acts of Christ the Redeemer, which are ordered to our redemption. The first of which is to become incarnate: and concerning this there is one article: Qui conceptus est de Spiritu sancto. The second is to be born; and concerning this there is another article: Natus ex Maria Virgine. The third is to pay the price for us: and concerning this there is another article: Passus sub Pontio Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus, et sepultus. The fourth is to despoil hell; and concerning this there is the article: Descendit ad inferna. The fifth is to triumph over death; and concerning this there is another article: Tertia die resurrexit a mortuis. The sixth is to transcend heavenly things: and concerning this there is another article: Ascendit ad caelos, sedet ad dexteram Dei Patris omnipotentis. The seventh to come to judgment: and concerning this there is another article: Inde venturus est iudicare vivos, et mortuos. And thus it is evident that there are seven articles looking to the Deity, and seven looking to the humanity, in which the universality of faith is contained, according as it is signified in 1. Apoc. where John says he saw seven candlesticks, and in the midst of the seven candlesticks one like to the son of man, and he had in his right hand seven stars. For by the seven luminous stars, which are of celestial nature, are understood the seven articles looking to the Divinity: but by the seven golden candlesticks, which are of earthly matter, nevertheless excellent and refined, are understood the seven articles regarding the humanity: and therefore he says, that in the midst of these he saw one like to the son of man. Therefore since these fourteen articles are contained in the Apostolic Symbol, hence it is that faith is contained in that Symbol sufficiently and fully as regards those things which are principally to be believed. And therefore the reasons toward that part are to be conceded.

You will say 1. If all the articles to be believed are contained sufficiently in that Symbol, why was it necessary to add other Symbols? But besides the Symbol of the Apostles the Church also has other Symbols, namely the Nicene Symbol, and the Symbol of Saint Athanasius: therefore the Apostolic Symbol does not embrace sufficiently all the things to be believed.

The Seraphic Doctor answers ib. ad 5. arg: that the Apostolic Symbol is sufficient unto the knowledge of the things to be believed; but that the others were added for the fuller explanation of the things to be believed, and for the confutation of heresies; whence the Apostolic Symbol is sufficient for instructing the common people concerning those things which it must believe explicitly; but the other two Symbols are necessary for Pastors and Rectors, both for explaining those things which are contained in the Apostolic Symbol, and for refuting various errors. The Nicene Symbol, says the Seraphic Doctor, was > composed for the confutation of many hereses springing up. Whence certain things are added for greater expression, whereby heresies can be confuted, and besides, to eliminate the heresy of Manichaeus not only is it said: Credo in Deum, but I believe in one God. Nor is it only said: Creatorem caeli et terrae, but also of all things visible and invisible. But for the confutation of the heresy of Arius not only is it said: Credo in Iesum Christum Dominum nostrum, but also there is added: Et in unum Dominum Iesum Christum Filium Dei unigenitum … up to where: Per quem omnia facta sunt. But for the confutation of the heresy of Eutyches, and Nestorius, who said the Holy Spirit was the servant of the Father and the Son, it is not said only: Credo in Spiritum sanctum, but there is added: Dominum et vivificantem, qui ex Patre procedit, and the Latins added, Filioque, on account of the error of the Greeks. Who together with the Father, and the Son is adored at once, etc. And there is added: Qui locutus est per Prophetas, for the destruction of the error of certain ones, who said that the Prophets spoke as phanatics. And thus it is evident, that those Symbols do not superabound, nor does the Apostolic fall short: because although in it faith is contained sufficiently as regards the proper and simple confession of faith, nevertheless it was opportune to add something to it for the fuller explanation, and on account of confuting heretical depravity.

You will say 2. The sum of the things to be believed is contained chiefly in these two, namely the existence of God, and His justice by way of order to rewarding men, according to that of Saint Paul to the Heb. 11. Accedentem ad Deum oportet credere quia est, et inquirentibus se remunerator est: but these two are not contained in the Apostolic Symbol: therefore it does not embrace sufficiently all the things to be believed.

I deny the minor. For we profess that God exists, when we say: Credo in Deum: for by these words we profess that there is one God: but remuneration is contained in those last words, Et vitam aeternam, in which is contained eternal beatitude for those observing the commandments of God: and consequently that divine justice sufficiently appears in rewarding the good, and punishing the evil: just as also all the other divine attributes become known, either by the name of God, or through the divine omnipotence: for He who is omnipotent, consequently is infinite, and thereby illustrated with all the perfections which look to infinite being.

You will say 3. Among the mysteries of faith to be believed explicitly by all, one of the chiefest is the Sacrament of the Eucharist, which on that account is called by Antonomasia Mysterium fidei: because it especially flees the natural grasp of the senses and of the human intellect: but that mystery is not contained in the Apostolic Symbol, nor even in the other two: therefore those Symbols do not embrace sufficiently all the things to be believed.

The same Seraphic Doctor answers ad 3. That this article is not principal, but is contained under some article, just as the other Sacraments. Now some wish to say, that it is reduced to the Article concerning Omnipotence: others however to the Article concerning the Passion, because this is the memorial of the passion: but it is better to recall it to the Article concerning the unity of the Church, and the remission of sins, to which also the other Sacraments are recalled: for in the Sacraments themselves is made the remission of sins, and is attended the union of the whole Church of Saints.

Certain ones add that this mystery is not posited in the Symbol, because there are contained in it only those things which were necessary to be known unto faith explicit pertaining to the intellect: but the explicit faith of the Eucharist is not necessary on account of itself, but unto fulfilling worthily the precept of receiving the Eucharist; whence, as Saint Augustine observes tract. 11. in Ioan, the Catechumens, who were formerly taught all the mysteries to be believed before they received baptism, heard nothing concerning the Sacrament of the Eucharist: therefore it is no wonder if in the Symbol, which the Catechumens even before receiving baptism are taught, nor must they profess, this article be not contained, whose explicit faith is not exacted from them until they should be about to receive this Sacrament.