Scotus Academicus, Tomus octavus: De Divino Gratiae Beneficio, et initium De Virtutibus Theologicis

Note 1. By the name of certitude is here understood the certitude of cognition, which is nothing else than the firmness and infallibility of assent itself; now this notion of certitude is customarily distinguished fourfold: namely of faith, of science, moral, and conjectural. The certitude of faith is that firm assent whereby we certainly and without any doubt assent to the things revealed by God. The certitude of science is that whereby the intellect firmly assents to some proposition by means of a demonstration deduced from other more evident things. Moral certitude is that whereby we assent to things proposed on account of the common assertion and knowledge of men, such as is that assent which we have concerning this proposition, Rome is in Italy, Jerusalem in Palestine. Finally conjectural certitude is that whereby we assent to some thing proposed on account of conjectures and arguments which indeed confer probability, yet do not remove every occasion of doubting.

Note 2. It is certain that the just cannot have any certitude of science concerning their justification: for such cognition must be either a priori or a posteriori: but in neither of those modes can anyone truly know himself to be in grace. Not indeed a priori, because no cause can be assigned from which it would be infallibly inferred that habitual grace is in a man; since this depends on the good pleasure of God, and even without sin he could recall it from a just man. Nor a posteriori, because we experience no effect of habitual grace in ourselves by which we could surely detect that grace to inhere in us. — It is certain secondly that all the just can have conjectural certitude concerning their justification, and can know by certain signs and probable conjectures that they are in grace, so that that certitude, although it does not exclude every fear, excludes nevertheless perturbation and anxiety of mind: for instance while one probably judges that he has exactly examined his conscience, and has received sacramental absolution with due and requisite dispositions: for, says St John cap. 13. For if our heart reprehend us not, we have confidence towards God. — Finally it is certain that through special divine revelation, and by singular privilege, a man can have infallible certitude, whether of faith or moral, concerning his justification: for God can reveal to whom he wills, and make more certain about this state; just as the Mother of God the Virgin had this certitude when the Angel saluted her ⟦greek: χαῖρε κεχαριτωμένη⟧, full of grace: which certitude likewise had St John the Baptist, who was filled with the Holy Spirit in his mother's womb at the Angel's announcement, and the paralytic when he heard: Thy sins are forgiven thee, as also Magdalene, Christ saying: Many sins are forgiven her because she hath loved much. Whence there remains only to be discussed whether all the just can and ought by some certitude of divine faith to believe with certainty that they are in the state of justifying grace.

NOTANDUM 3. That the heretics of this time assert that man not only can know, but ought to believe with certainty that he is in divine grace, otherwise he is neither just nor a believer, namely with that faith by which they hold believers to be justified. So Luther first taught, first indeed in public theses, which in the year 1518, before his apostasy from the Monastery, among which were these propositions 13. Hence they err into infidelity who assert remission of guilt to be uncertain, on account of the uncertainty of contrition: and 14. However uncertain both Priest and penitent may be about contrition, absolution is valid if he believes himself absolved. And 17. Therefore it is certain that sins are remitted, if he believes them remitted, because the promise of Christ the Savior is certain. And 16. One absolved ought rather to die out of heaven, and deny every creature, than doubt of his absolution. And in the conference which he had with Cardinal Cajetan among other things he affirms, No one can be justified except through faith: namely in such wise that it must needs be that he believe with certain faith that he is justified, and in no way doubt that he obtains justice. For if he doubts and is uncertain, he is no longer justified, but loses grace. To him subscribes Melancthon in Loci Theologici, on the word faith. « When Paul, he says, says we are justified by faith, the word faith signifies not only the knowledge of history, as the demons also know the history, or dogmas; but signifies assenting to all the articles of faith, and among these to this article: I believe the remission of sins, and life everlasting, not given only to others, but to me also. With this assent whereby thou believest thyself forgiven, the heart is raised up by confidence in the promised mercy, etc. »

This flagitious dogma Calvin innovated, lib. 8. Instit., cap. 2. n. 1. and in Antidote to Session 6. cap. 13. of the Council of Trent, where among other things he says, « It must be asserted that they who are truly justified ought without doubt to establish within themselves that they are justified. If it is so, let them see by what reason confidence can be reconciled with doubt »; and below: « and of what improbability, I beseech you, is it to assert that no one can know by the certitude of faith that he has obtained the grace of God; Paul and John acknowledge as sons of God none but those who know it. Of what science shall we interpret this, unless that which they have learned by the teaching of the Holy Spirit? » All the Sectators subscribe to these, in whose name Chamierus brings forward these things, lib. 13. cap. 1. n. 1. where he says: « The sum of those things which we teach in this part consists of two heads. First, that believers know through faith not only… that some will be saved, or that they who believe will be saved hereafter, but also in particular… that they themselves will be saved, because they believe… and moreover this application supplies the difference of faith truly justifying from historical faith, which conceives whatever it hears of God, and his mercy, in no other way than as holding it true, or rather truthful; which very many infidels can do: nay rather all devils do. The other head, that this knowledge is joined with certitude; whose measure is none other than that of faith ». These things thus posited, be it:

Single Conclusion. — NO ONE OUGHT NOR CAN BELIEVE WITH DIVINE FAITH THAT HE HAS SANCTIFYING GRACE WITHOUT A SPECIAL REVELATION MADE TO HIM BY SOME SINGULAR PRIVILEGE. The Conclusion is determined as of faith in the Council of Trent, Session 6. cap. 9. where, condemning the vain confidence of the heretics, it likewise condemns every infallible certitude which anyone could pretend concerning his own justification apart from divine revelation, in these words: For as no pious person ought to doubt concerning the mercy of God, concerning the merit of Christ, and concerning the virtue and efficacy of the sacraments: so each one, when he regards himself and his own weakness and indisposition, may fear and tremble concerning his own grace: since no one can know with the certitude of faith, which cannot admit of falsehood, that he has obtained the grace of God. Hence Canon 5 decrees: If anyone shall say that every one reborn and justified is bound by faith to believe that he is certainly among the number of the predestined: let him be anathema.

It is proved first from holy Scripture, Proverbs 20. Who can say: My heart is clean, I am pure from sin? For if he cannot say this, much less can he know it by divine faith. Likewise from that passage of Ecclesiastes: There are just men and wise, and their works are in the hand of God: and yet man knoweth not whether he be worthy of love or hatred: but all things are reserved uncertain to the future. Which passage St Jerome weighs thus. « Further, he says, this is the meaning: even in this did I give my heart, and wished to know whom God loved, whom he hated, and I found that the works of the just indeed are in the hand of God, and yet whether they are loved by God or not, they cannot now know, and fluctuate ambiguously, whether unto trial they sustain what they sustain, or unto punishment. In the future therefore they shall know, and in their countenance are all things, that is, truth of this matter precedes them when they depart from this life, because then is judgment, now contest, and of those who sustain adversities whether they sustain them through love of God, as Job, or through hatred, as very many sinners, it is now held uncertain ».

Likewise from that passage of Ecclesiastes: Be not without fear about sin forgiven, and say not: The mercy of the Lord is great: he will have mercy on the multitude of my sins. Finally from that passage ad Cor. 4. I am not conscious to myself of anything, but I am not hereby justified: but he that judgeth me is the Lord. By which the Apostle, according to the interpretation of St Chrysostom, signifies that it is not sufficient for certitude concerning one's own justice that he observe no sin in himself, since God could detect some sin in him. But if you should say that the Apostle, while writing these things, had a divinely given revelation concerning his own justification: I shall reply with this granted, that the sense of these words is, I am conscious to myself of nothing, but this would not suffice, that I might be certain of my justification, unless the Lord who judgeth me had made it known to me from elsewhere.

It is proved secondly by the authority of the holy Fathers: first indeed of Ambrose, Sermon on Psal. 118 upon these words: Take away my reproach, which I have suspected: where he says:

He wished reproach to be taken away, which he suspected, either because he had thought in his heart, and had not done, and although abolished by penance, he was nevertheless suspected, lest perhaps his reproach still remained, and therefore he prays God that he take it away, who alone knows what even he who did it can know.

Augustine book De perfectione iustitiae, cap. 15.

Whatever justice a man may be endowed with, he ought to consider lest something in him which he himself does not see be intended as blameworthy, when just law sits upon the throne, from whose cognition offenses cannot flee, nor those of which it was said: Who understandeth his faults?

Hence in book 50. Homiliarum 35 he pronounces plainly: As long as we are here, we cannot judge of ourselves, I say not what we shall be tomorrow, but what we are today. To him subscribes St Gregory, lib. 6. Epist. 22. to Gregoria chamberlain of the Empress, who had written to him desiring to know whether her sins had been forgiven her; among other things he answers: You have asked of me a thing difficult and useless to you: difficult, because I am unworthy that revelation be sent to me; useless, because you are certain of your penitence.

Proof finally by reason: only that can be believed by faith which has been revealed, whether through Scripture or through the Church: but neither through Scripture nor through the Church has it been revealed to justified man that he is just. For if it were revealed, it would be revealed either in general or in particular; not in general, otherwise all the just would know themselves to be truly justified, which plainly appears false; for very many are doubtful and anxious about their justification and salvation. Nor yet in particular, because if any of the just knew himself to be in grace, especially through the testimony of the Holy Spirit dwelling within: yet this cannot be affirmed; for since the same Spirit dwells by grace in all the just, He would testify to all that they are sons of God; yet the contrary appears.

Then too, justification depends not only on the divine promise and revelation, but also on our conversion and preparation; and yet no one can be certain that he has truly been converted to God, because man does not know whether that conversion is from grace or from concupiscence, and as Gregory says, part 1 of his Pastoral Rule, chapter 29: The human mind often lies to itself, and feigns to love the good which it does not love.

It is confirmed, for the disposition to justification to be valid, and the conversion perfect, it must proceed from a supernatural motive: but this cannot be certain to us; because although we may be certain that we are moved toward detesting sins from a supernatural motive materially, namely on account of God offended; yet it is uncertain whether we are moved thereto also by a supernatural motive formally, that is, by the form and grace divinely elevating and exciting; and accordingly no one can be certain that he has the sufficient dispo- sition whereby he may obtain the grace of justification. — Finally, the ordinary disposition of God's providence and of things does not require, nor is it expedient for men, that men should believe with certainty that they are justified: for that certainty would be for them an occasion of pride, of contempt of others, and of a looser life; pride indeed and complacency, if he knew himself to be pleasing to God; contempt of others truly, if indeed man knew himself to be just, but did not know whether others were likewise just: finally, of a looser life, since he would not care to bring forth fruits worthy of penance, nor to pro- fess in grace.

You will object 1. That passage of John 13: By this shall all men know that you are my disciples, if you have love one for another: therefore much more can man know of himself that he is a disciple of Christ, if he has love for his neighbor. And in the following chapter: But you shall know him, because he shall abide with you, and shall be in you. And afterward: In that day you shall know, that I am in my Father, and you in me, and I in you: therefore one can know with certainty, upon faith having its divine foundation in Sacred Scripture, believe that he is in grace without any other special revelation.

I deny the consequence. And to the first text I say that it is to be under- stood of conjectural certainty: namely because the love of neighbor is a sign of the love of God; whence Tertullian in the Apology, chapter 39, says: The greatest working of love imprints a mark upon us in the eyes of some: see, they say, how they love one another; but this cannot produce absolute certainty, because without special revelation no one can know whether this love arises from the effect of nature or of grace. As to the second, I say its meaning is that the faithful in whom the Holy Spirit dwells, when they know, not indeed with a barren knowledge, such as that which comes from unformed faith; but fruitful, such as arises from living faith: moreover this knowledge is only conjectural; for who knows whether the good works which he elicits proceed from living faith, or unformed? To the third, I say with St. Augustine, tractate 75 on John, that those words designate the day of the future age, and of blessed life, in which we shall see and know clearly and intuitively that Christ the Lord is the Son of the same nature with the Father, and that we are incorporated into Him as members to the head.

You will object 2. That passage of Rom. 8: The same Spirit gives testimony to our spirit that we are the sons of God. But the testimony of the Holy Spirit is intel- ligible, and we are bound by divine faith to assent to it; whence St. Chrysostom on these words: When the Holy Spirit testifies, what ambiguity at last remains? for if even a man, or an Angel, or an Archangel, or some other power of this kind promised this, it would be fitting and proper for some so to doubt: but when the highest essence, and indeed that very one which bestows this gift, brings us testimony, who at last doubts its worthiness? Therefore the certainty which is caused in us by such testimony must needs be infallible. Hence St. Bernard, Sermon 1 On the Annunciation: If you believe your sins cannot be blotted out, except by him against whom alone you sinned, and in whom sin does not fall, you do well: but add further that you believe, because through him your sins are forgiven you, this is the testimony which the Holy Spirit gives in our hearts, saying: Your sins are forgiven you.

I answer 1. The words of the Apostle are to be understood of the whole Church, to which the Holy Spirit testifies that she has the spirit of adoption: partly because there he compares the Church with the Synagogue, contending that the Church has the spirit of adoption, while the Synagogue had only the spirit of fear: partly because in what follows he indicates that some of those to whom he writes are contentious and weak in faith, as appears from chapter 14.

I answer 2. But if these words are understood of the faithful in particular, that testimony of which the Apostle speaks is only through the experience of the sweetness and tranquillity of conscience, and through pious motions and affections toward God; namely by this, that the faithful, who think themselves just, may confidently dare to say: Abba, Father: all which things can also be found in men who are not just: for this confidence can arise even from a presumptuous and erroneous conscience. Finally, I say this testimony is only conditional, as appears from these following words: And if sons, heirs also: heirs indeed of God, and joint heirs with Christ: yet so, if we suffer with him: but it is uncertain to us whether with Christ, and after His example and grace, we suffer the ca- lamities of the present life with a strong and constant mind: therefore, etc. To St. Ber- nard I say that he teaches there only that those two things are to be believed: first, that God has the power of remitting sins; second, that He also has the will to grant us remission of sins through the means instituted by Him. But St. Bernard does not affirm that these means are here and now applied to us as is required, and according to every disposition which is required in order that remission follow infallibly.

You will object 3. That passage of 1 Cor. 2: We have received the Spirit of Christ, that we may know the things that are given us from God. 2 Cor. 1: This is our glory, the testimony of our conscience. And chapter 13: Prove yourselves if you be in the faith; prove you yourselves: know you not your own selves, that Christ Jesus is in you, unless perhaps you be reprobates?

I answer to 1. The Apostle in that place speaks not of all the just whatsoever, but only of the Apostles. 2. That he speaks not of sanctifying grace, but only of the mysteries of the Christian religion, as well as of the benefits prepared and granted, and also to be gran- ted to the society of the Elect in general, as these following words prove: Which things also we speak, not in the learned words of human wisdom. To 2. I say, that this testimony of conscience is only conjectural: for that anyone may rejoice in the Lord, it suffices that he have good confidence in God. Then, the Apostle speaks only of his own per- son. Finally, this testimony is not about the state of holiness of the soul, but about the simplicity and sincerity of his conduct in discharging the Apos- tolic office: for he adds that we have conversed not in the wisdom of the flesh, but in the grace of God, where the phrase grace of God signifies not only the mighty operation of God known to himself from the miracles which he wrought, but also from the conversion of many to the faith. ⟦illegible: una vel plures versuum lineae OCR amissae⟧ according to habitual grace, but only of the presence of the Lord according to power and miracles; so that the sense is: examine your consciences, whether you have true ⟦ille- gible: …⟧ concerning the Ecclesiastical power, which Christ granted to His Church. But if you wish the Apostle to be understood of the presence of Christ through sanctifying grace, I say his words are to be ta- ken of moral and conjectural knowledge. Nor does the word reprobi stand in the way: for in that place it means the same as vile and degene- rate, whence he adds: but I hope that you shall know that we are not reprobi, that is, vile, and destitute of authority.

You will object 4. That passage of 1 John 3: We know that we have passed from death to life, because we love the brethren. And that of Apoc. 3: To him that overcomes I will give hidden manna, which no man knows but he that receives it. And that of 2 Pet. 1: Brethren, give diligence to make your calling and election sure through good works: therefore from good works we can be certain of our election and calling unto holiness.

I answer 1. St. John speaks either of the Church, or of the assembly of the faithful itself, in such wise that we may be certain that in the Catholic Church there are men who have passed from death to life, because they love the brethren: or if it be understood of the faithful in particular, there follows only from it that we know this sometimes with moral certainty, but not by divine faith; for who without special revelation can know that he loves the brethren as is necessary for salvation? To the second I say, that whoever receives that grace signified by the hidden manna, can indeed know conjecturally that he has it, but not with certain faith and without all fear. To the third I say, the meaning of that place is not that we can make our vocation and election so sure by the good works of this present life that by such works we may be certain that we are of the number of the Elect, but that on our part we ought to labor in good works insofar as we may merit eternal life, and may thereby make our calling sure before God.

You will object 5. Someone can know with certainty of science, indeed even of faith, that another is in the state of sanctifying grace: therefore by the same certainty he will be able, for the same reason, to know that he himself is in the state of grace. The antecedent is proven: it is certain with the certainty of faith that an infant truly and lawfully baptized is in habitual grace, because it is of faith that baptism confers grace ex opere operato: someone, e.g. a Priest who baptized an infant, can know that he lawfully baptized him, namely by employing true elemental water, and pronouncing this formula of words: I baptize you, etc., and by having done all these things with the due intention of doing what the Church does, which three things suffice for a lawful baptism. It is likewise certain that an infant has not placed an obstacle to sanctifying grace, since he is not possessed of liberty and reason; accordingly one really can know that another is in the state of sanctifying grace.

I deny the consequence: for there is a far-reaching disparity between the state of an infant and of an adult who has been justified, since on the part of the infant no disposition toward grace is pre-required, but only that baptism be con- ferred on him lawfully; for whose conferral there is not required on the part of the confer- rer any supernatural act, but a natural intention suffices, actual or virtual, of doing what the Church does. Hence whoever baptized can know that he administered baptism lawfully, because all the things which are required for the lawful administration of baptism are purely natural: namely the ablution, the formula of words, and the intention of the Minister. But it is otherwise with the adult who, being possessed of reason and liberty, must prepare himself for his justification, and this from his own disposition elicited from a supernatural motive. Hence since his justification depends both upon such a disposition, and upon the will of another who confers the sacrament upon him. Hence it is that since he cannot know with certainty that he had a disposition from a supernatural motive, nor even know whether he who administered the sacrament to him had a true and lawful intention of conferring it, the consequence is that these things cannot be certain to him, nor can his own justification equally be certain to him.

You will object 6. The Church cannot be more certain of the Martyrdom of any man than he who suffered it: but the Church believes with certain faith that he who died for Christ is truly a Martyr, enrolls him in the sacred fasts of the Saints, and proposes him as a Saint to be believed in by the faithful: therefore the Martyr himself also can believe and know with certain faith that he has sanctifying grace.

I answer first by denying the major: for the Church in the canoniza- tion of Saints has a special assistance of the Holy Spirit: she is indeed the pillar and firmament of truth, against which the gates of hell, that is, error and deception, just as neither tyranny nor persecution, shall never be able to prevail, so as to deceive her and cast her down. But it is otherwise with the Martyr, who does not have such an infallible assistance of the Holy Spirit. Hence it is that very many heretics think that they die for Christ, and are truly Martyrs, when nevertheless they stubbornly lay down their lives in asserting error, and are not therefore rewarded with the glory and crown of Martyrdom. I answer secondly, that the argument in no way militates against our assertion: for either the objection is understood of the Martyr who is still being tortured, and has not consummated his Martyrdom: or of the Martyr already consummated and dead. If the former, it is certain that in that state he is not yet held by the Church as a Martyr: for very many in the very torments abjured Christ, and fell away from the Christian religion and faith. If the latter, then the Martyr knows with certainty that he has grace, since he is gloriously crowned by God, and only then is he enrolled by the Church in the fasts of the Saints.

You will object 7. Whenever some particular proposition is evidently pro- posed or deduced as contained under some universal which is of faith, its truth can certainly be believed with the certainty of faith or at least theological: but this proposition: I am in the state of sanctifying grace, is evidently de- duced from many revealed principles: therefore I can certainly believe its truth. The major is plain: for this reason, while I stand at the sacred rite, I believe with certain faith that Christ is in the consecrated host which the Priest presents for adoration, because this proposition, Christ is really in this host, is deduced from this proposition of faith: Christ is really under the species of bread and wine lawfully consecrated: and I believe this host to be lawfully consecrated: therefore equally I must believe that Christ is really present in this host. The minor is proven: one of the revealed principles is that whoever receives the sacrament of baptism or penance with sufficient sorrow obtains the remission of sins: but someone can know by certain experience that he approached baptism or penance with due disposition; namely with due inten- tion, and requisite affection: therefore he can be certain that he obtained grace.

I deny the minor: partly because no one can be certain that he had a lawful disposition from a supernatural motive: partly because he certainly does not know whether he who administers the sacrament has the true and lawful intention of conferring it, and accordingly he cannot be certain whether this proposition is true: I lawfully approached the holy sacrament.

You will object 8. One can be certain about his own faith with infallible certainty: therefore also about his charity, which is really undistinguished from sanctifying grace. The consequence seems legitimate: for precisely this is why one cannot be certain about his grace and charity, because grace and charity are something supernatural: but faith is also supernatural: therefore if notwithstanding this man can have infallible certainty about his faith, by equal reason he will be able to be certain about his grace and charity. The major is proven from that last chapter of 2 Corinthians: Prove yourselves if you be in the faith. On which place St. Anselm says: He who has the sense of faith in his heart knows that Christ Jesus is in him. — It is confirmed from St. Augustine, lib. 13. De Trinitate, chapter 1: Each one sees his own faith in himself. Likewise, Each holds his faith with most certain knowledge, and with conscience crying out.

I deny the major, and to its first proof I say that St. Paul, as we have already said, is to be understood of probation by moral certainty, as that passage also of 2 Corinthians 11 is understood: But let a man prove himself, and so let him eat of that bread, etc. For just as this probation is done only through a certain moral certainty, which those approaching the sacred Synaxis ought to have about the state of their justification; so too that probation of faith is done only through the moral certainty which each faithful man can have that he believes the mysteries of faith from divine faith; concerning which certainty St. Anselm likewise is to be interpreted. To St. Augustine I say that he speaks there not of justifying and supernatural faith, but of every act of divine or human faith, which each one experiences himself to have while he truly knows that he believes something on the authority of God or of man proposing and revealing; although he does not know whether that faith by which he believes is acquired or infused: thus those words of the holy Doctor can fit both the Jew and the Christian: for although the latter believes true things, the former false, yet each holds his faith with most certain knowledge and conscience crying out.

You will object finally. Unless the just man be certain about his justice, it is necessary that his conscience be ever harassed by fluctuating trepidation, and nowhere enjoy that peace which Christ gave to the Apostles, His followers, and the faithful: but this is against the Apostle saying Rom. 5: Therefore being justified by faith, let us have peace towards God: therefore, etc.

I deny the major: for in order that the just man not be harassed by perpetual tumult of conscience, whereby he might be driven into desperation, it suffices that he have conjectural certainty, which although it does not take away all fear, takes away at least anxiety. Nor indeed is it expedient for the just man to be secure about his justice: for Prov. 18: Blessed is the man who is always on his guard. Hence appositely the Apostle admonishes the Philippians, chapter 2: With fear and trembling work out your salvation.

From these things I conclude that no man, however holy, can have a moral certainty which excludes all fear that he is in grace, except from special privilege and singular revelation, as the Council of Trent teaches, Session 6, chapter 13, saying: No one ought to promise himself anything with absolute certainty, although all ought to place and repose the firmest hope in the help of God: for God will never fail in His grace unless they first fail therein; as He began the good work, so He will perfect it, working to will and to accomplish. Yet nonetheless those who think themselves to stand, let them see that they fall, and with fear and trembling work out their salvation, in labors, in watchings, in almsdeeds, in prayers and oblations, in fastings and chastity: for they ought to fear, knowing that unto the hope of glory ⟦illegible: …⟧ unto glory they are born again of combat, which remains with the flesh, with the world, with the devil, in which they cannot conquer except with the grace of God. Hence it is that most holy men, though shining with eminent piety, and illustrious by very many miracles and stupendous works, feared so greatly for their salvation that St. Hilarion himself, even at the moment of death struck by this vehement fear, was compelled to say to his soul: Go forth, my soul, why do you fear? For seventy years I served the Lord, and do you fear death?