Scotus Academicus, Tomus octavus: De Divino Gratiae Beneficio, et initium De Virtutibus Theologicis

ALTHOUGH, as we noted in the Preludes, all grace is given freely; because, as the Apostle says, Rom. 11, if by grace, it is now not by works; otherwise grace is no more grace: whence Saint Augustine, in the book On the Deeds of Pelagius, says: The very name of grace, and the understanding of that name, is taken away if it is not given freely, but he who is worthy receives it; nevertheless Theologians commonly divide created grace by a primary division into that which is called freely given, and that which is called sanctifying. The former is that which is primarily bestowed by God upon the utility and spiritual salvation of others, according to that word of 1. Cor. 12, The manifestation of the Spirit is given for the utility, namely of the Church, and for the edification of the body of Christ, and the consummation of the Saints. I said primarily, for although they obtain freely given graces, they can expend them for their own edification and salvation, according to that word of Daniel 12, They who are learned shall shine as the splendor of the firmament; and they who instruct many to justice, as stars into perpetual eternities.

Sanctifying grace, however, is that which is primarily bestowed by God upon the utility and spiritual salvation of the recipient himself, according to that word of Ephes. 1, He hath blessed us with every spiritual blessing, that we might be holy, and unspotted in his sight. I said primarily, because sanctifying grace also, which makes man pleasing, can contribute to the salvation of others, both through the good example of the man possessing it, according to that word of Matth. 5, So let your light shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father: and through fraternal charity, by which each one is bound to procure the salvation of his brother: for God commanded each one concerning his neighbor: and finally on account of the unity

of the Church and the communion of Saints, according to that word of Psalm 118, I am a partaker with all them that fear thee.

The aforesaid division of grace into sanctifying and freely given is legitimate. Proof, because that division is legitimate whose dividing members possess the three following conditions: first, that they share the reason of the genus: second, that they be distinguished from one another: third, that they adequately share the divided genus. But the aforesaid division stands thus: 1. For each of its members is ordered to supernatural good, either to be procured for oneself or for others. 2. Freely given grace is distinguished from sanctifying grace: for this is referred to the recipient's own salvation, but that to the utility of others. 3. Finally both of these graces adequately share the general reason of grace: because every grace properly so called is per se first ordered to one's own or to others' salvation.

You will say. Natural gifts cannot be referred to either member of this division: for they do not per se regard one's own or another's salvation: therefore this division is not adequate. — I distinguish the antecedent: natural gifts are a certain species of grace broadly taken, and insofar as grace signifies any divine gift converted beyond merit, I concede: but of grace strictly taken, and insofar as grace signifies a gift freely granted in order to salvation, I deny.

You will say 2. The aforesaid opposition is not sought from the nature of the thing, but from its effect: therefore it is not legitimate. — I deny the consequence: because since all graces are ordered by their nature to some effect, although among them some are absolute qualities, nevertheless as far as our knowledge is concerned in this mortal state, it suffices that their constitutive and distinguishing reasons be drawn from the end to which they are ordered.

You will say 3. The Sacerdotal character, and the virtue of administering the Sacraments, is a certain created supernatural grace of order: but this regards neither of those: therefore the aforesaid division is not adequate. The minor stands: for it cannot be reduced to sanctifying grace, because from its primary intention it is not ordered to the private sanctification of each of the ministers: nor is it freely given, because it does not seem to regard any member of the freely given graces enumerated by the Apostle. — I deny the minor: for, as will appear within, this virtue of ministering the Sacraments is reduced to the virtue of working miracles, which is a freely given grace: for no greater miracle can be reckoned than the vivification and sanctification of a soul, which is elicited through the administration of the Sacraments.

You ask: By what precisely is freely given grace distinguished from sanctifying grace?

I answer, these two graces differ from one another chiefly in three ways: First, they differ by reason of themselves, in that freely given graces are altogether diverse among themselves, and have no relation or connexion with one another, although they are ordered to the conferring of faith, and to the public good of the Church: but sanctifying graces regard one another mutually: for all the aids of actual grace regard habitual grace, whether as dispositions toward it, or as effects proceeding from it, or as the concourse due to it. — Second, they differ by reason of the end: because, as we said, sanctifying grace is conferred by primary intention for one's own good; but freely given grace for the public utility of the whole Church: not that sanctifying grace does not sometimes redound to public utility, but that end is extrinsic, and hangs rather upon the operator than upon the grace itself. — Third, finally, they differ by reason of the subject: because sanctifying grace is found only in the just: but freely given grace can also be found in sinners; for in Numbers 23. 24. Balaam is said to have prophesied, who was nonetheless perverse. John 13.¹ Caiphas prophesied that Christ was about to die for the nation, that the children of God who were dispersed might be gathered together into one. And Matthew 7.² Many will say to me in that day: Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name, and cast out devils in thy name, and done many miracles in thy name? And then will I profess unto them: because I never knew you. The reason of this thing indeed is, that although a man may be evil in respect of himself, it does not conflict that he be useful to others: whence it follows, that from miracles alone in this mortal life the sanctity of the operator cannot be certainly concluded: although it is beyond doubt that the grace of miracles, and other things of that kind, are more often granted to the just than to sinners.

You ask 2. Which of these graces is the worthier of the other?

I answer, without doubt sanctifying grace is far more excellent than freely given graces; which indeed is gathered from the Apostle 1. ad Cor. 12, where after the Apostle had enumerated various kinds of freely given graces, wishing to speak of sanctifying grace, or of charity, he adds: And I shew unto you yet a more excellent way. Hence he exhorts the faithful: Emulate the better charisms: and what those better charisms may be he declares in the following chapter: if I speak with the tongues of men, and of Angels, but have not charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal. Christ had signified the same truth Luke 12, saying to the Apostles: In this do not rejoice that the spirits are subject unto you, but rejoice in this, that your names are written in heaven. Hence Saint Augustine, book 83. Questions, Question 69, says that freely given graces are not granted to all the just and faithful, lest they be led into a most pernicious error of judging that in such deeds there are greater goods than in the works of justice, by which eternal life is procured.

Reason also supports this, because the habit which is immediately referred to the ultimate end, and joins us to it without any medium, is more excellent than that which accomplishes it only mediately: but sanctifying grace is immediately referred to the ultimate end, and immediately joins us to God; whereas freely given grace directly regards the utility of the neighbor, and orders us to the ultimate end only through the mediation of sanctifying grace, and therefore the latter is more excellent than the former.

Moreover, in the present Section there will be discourse only concerning freely given graces, which for the sake of greater clarity we shall distribute into the following §§.

§ I. How manifold is Freely Given Grace. — I answer that it is commonly divided into nine species, which the Apostle enumerates 1. ad Corinth. 12, where, having said: There are diversities of graces, but one and the same Spirit; he adds: To one indeed by the Spirit is given the word of wisdom: and to another the word of knowledge according to the same Spirit: to another faith in the same spirit: to another the grace of healings in one Spirit: to another the working of virtues, to another prophecy, to another the discernment of spirits, to another kinds of tongues, to another the interpretation of speeches.*

The reason of this division our Alensian reports q. 63. m. 3. on the part of the truth to be taught, 2. confirmed, 3. expounded by him who has attained such graces:

For truth, he says, either concerns things to be believed and things to be done, or the end of the things done and believed: or more manifestly; either it is about the end, or about those things which are toward the end. Moreover those things which are toward the end are either to be done, or are to be believed, and accordingly a threefold grace is required, that wisdom be about the end, namely about eternal things: science about things to be done: faith about things to be believed. — As regards the confirmation of speech, which is necessary to the doctrine of truth, according to what is said at the end of Mark: They preached everywhere, the Lord cooperating, and confirming speech with signs following: because a twofold grace is required; for the confirmation of speech takes place in two ways: in one way through miracles of operation, in the other way through miracles of cognition. Moreover the miracles of operation occur in two ways: in one way insofar as they exceed the act of nature, yet not its power: in the other way insofar as they exceed both act and power, and are said to be impossible to nature. Similarly the miracles of cognition occur in two ways, in one way through cognition of the true, but in the other through cognition of the good; or otherwise: in one way through cognition of things, in the other way through the discernment of intentions. To the confirmation of the doctrine of truth in a work that exceeds the act of nature is the grace of healings. There is again a grace in a work that exceeds the power of nature, namely the grace of the operation of virtues, that is, of miracles, which are above nature, as the Gloss interprets. Similarly there is a grace in the marvelous cognition of truth, whether of things future, as the grace of prophecy. Next there is a grace in the marvelous discernment of good or of intention, as the grace of the discernment of spirits, so that one may discern what he hears; by what spirit, good or evil, a thing is spoken, because the devil speaks good things by seduction, as the Gloss explains. — Finally, as regards the explication, or exposition, of truth, two things are required: one, that the explication of truth be made to all; the other, that it be made of all things that pertain to their salvation. The grace of the explication of truth is therefore twofold: the grace of kinds of tongues, through which the explication of truth would be made to all, and the grace of interpretation of speeches, through which the explication of truth would be made of all things. The grace of kinds of tongues is necessary for the explication of truth in proper speeches, according to the property of each idiom: but the interpretation of speeches for the explication of truth in manifested speeches <. This from the Alensian.

The same distribution the Angelic Doctor gathers 1. 2. quaest. 111. art. 1. ⟦uncertain: raw OCR "quaest. ở. art. t."; citation restored to Summa I-II q. 111 a. 1 (De divisionibus gratiarum)⟧ from this, that freely given grace is ordered to this, that man cooperate with another, that he be brought back to God: but man cannot operate unto this by moving interiorly, but only by teaching exteriorly, or persuading: and therefore freely given grace contains under itself all those things by which man has need, that he may instruct another, and inform him of divine things, which are above reason.

Moreover three things are required for this: First, that man have full cognition of divine things, as far as human condition can bear, that he may instruct and inform others. Second, that he may prove and confirm those things which he says; otherwise his doctrine would not be efficacious. Third, that he can fittingly utter those things which he conceives, and expound them to his hearers.

To the first, however, namely that man have knowledge of divine things, three things are necessary: First, that he most surely hold the principles of the cognition of divine things; this indeed is done through faith, which is numbered among the freely given graces, not insofar as it is a certain virtue pertaining to the sanctification of man in himself, but insofar as it imports some eminent certainty and conviction of faith, by which man becomes fit to inform others of divine things. Second, that he thoroughly traverse the principal conclusions, which are deduced from those most lofty principles; this indeed is done through wisdom. Third, that he abound in examples, and in the cognition of effects, through which causes must sometimes be manifested; and as regards this science is set forth, which is the cognition of human things; because the invisible things of God are understood and seen through those things which have been made. Therefore insofar as wisdom and science import fullness and abundance, such that man can not only rightly judge within himself concerning divine things, but also instruct others, and refute contradictors, they are thus numbered among the freely given graces. But others, under another acceptation, are enumerated among the gifts of the Holy Ghost, namely insofar as the mind of man is rendered wholly movable by the Holy Ghost, toward those things which are of wisdom and science.

As to the second, namely the confirmation of those things which are rightly delivered from above above reason, it is required that the evangelical Doctor sometimes do those things which are proper to divine power, and which cannot be done by natural virtue. But of these there are four genera, of which the two former pertain to the operation of those things which God alone can do in miraculous works, whether they be for the salvation of bodies, and as regards this is posited the grace of healings, or whether they be referred solely to the manifestation of divine power, such as that the sun stand still, that the sea be divided, and as regards this is posited the operation of virtues. The two latter pertain to the manifestation of those things which it belongs to the Lord alone to know. These two are either contingents, whether futures, for whose discernment Prophecy is posited; or the hidden things of hearts, for which is posited the discernment of spirits. To the third finally, namely to the faculty of uttering those things which are deservedly perceived, it is necessary that the Preacher of sacred doctrine speak in that idiom by which he may be understood, and accordingly is posited the grace of tongues. Last of all it is required, that he expound those things which have been revealed in that sense in which they were dictated by the Holy Ghost, and ought to be understood, and on account of this is posited the interpretation of speeches.

From these it is evident that that division of freely given grace handed down by the Apostle is not into proximate and immediate members.

You will object 1. Faith is sanctifying grace: therefore it ought not to be numbered among the freely given graces. — I distinguish the antecedent: it is sanctifying grace, insofar as it is the gift by which one firmly adheres to things revealed, on account of the authority of God revealing, I concede: insofar as faith is a singular illumination of God in conceiving the mysteries of faith, and likewise an exceeding certainty of the things to be believed, by which man becomes fit to instruct others, and to expound and persuade them of the mysteries of faith, I deny.

You will object 2. The gifts of the Holy Ghost ought not to be numbered among the freely given charisms, for per se they are referred to the salvation of those to whom they are conferred: yet wisdom and science are gifts of the Holy Ghost: therefore they ought not to be reckoned among the freely given graces. — I distinguish the minor: they are gifts of the Holy Ghost, insofar as through wisdom and science man is easily rendered movable by the Holy Ghost, I concede: insofar as through each man is rendered fit to instruct others, I deny.

You will object finally: The grace of healings, the operation of virtues, prophecy, the discernment of spirits can be recalled to the same head, namely to the gift of miracles: therefore the aforesaid division fails. — I distinguish the consequent: if this division is examined with rigor of Logic, whose laws require division into immediate members, I concede: if morally, I deny: for commonly the passage is made from a prior and immediate member to mediate ones.

Here, however, although these things appear true, nevertheless I judge that it must be said as more probable that there are more than nine freely given graces: for the same Apostle also enumerates helps, and governments, which cannot be recalled to any of the nine assigned. There can be added the science of light in the Supreme Pontiff together with a Council for defining matters of faith. There can also be added the character of Order, which although it could be recalled to the operation of virtues, yet seems more distinct from it than the word of science is from the word of wisdom.

Corollary. — From these gather that the definition of freely given grace is rightly assigned by our Alensian 3. part. qu. 13 m. 2. in these words: Freely given grace is a gift divinely infused into men, without merits, for the edification of another. It is called a gift divinely infused, because it proceeds from God the bestower of all good things; for every best gift and perfect gift is from above, descending from the Father of lights. It is added to men, because since freely given grace is given for bringing men back to God, it was fitting that the means ordered to this bringing-back be conferred also upon men, insofar as this restoration may take place in a manner convenient to their nature. It follows not from merits, both because it is not had from the debt of nature, nor does it regard its natural complement: and because freely given grace is also found in sinners, and therefore is not bestowed on account of their good works. It is called lastly for the edification of another, because wherever the Apostle commemorates freely given graces, he subjoins that they are granted on account of the utility of others. Thus 1. Corinth. 3. he says he received grace to evangelize the Gentiles. And chap. 1. after assigning the freely given graces, he affirms they are conferred unto the consummation of the Saints ⟦uncertain: raw OCR inserts "idest filolium", reading unclear⟧ unto the work of the ministry, unto the edification of the body of Christ, which is the Church. And 1. Petri 4.³ it is said: As every man hath received grace, ministering the same one to another, as good stewards of the manifold grace of God. From all these texts it sufficiently appears that all freely given graces have been granted by God for the edification and utility of the neighbor. That this may stand out more evidently, a few things must here be discussed concerning each of the freely given graces specifically.

§ II. On the Word of Wisdom and of Science. — Some judge that both of these graces pertain only to cognition; yet so that they deem the word of wisdom to be the cognition of the higher and more sublime interior mysteries of faith, such as the Trinity, Predestination, and the Incarnation; but the word of science to be the cognition of those things which pertain to morals, such as the precepts of the Decalogue. Thus Saint Augustine seems to think, book 13 of the Confessions, chap. 18, where he calls the former grace the greater light, and the latter the lesser light. But others judge, with Saint Chrysostom, Theophylact, and Theodoret on chap. 12. 1. ad Cor., that the word of science is bare cognition of the mysteries of the faith, without the skill of instructing others; but the word of wisdom to be the same cognition together with the skill of instructing others. Yet neither opinion appears true, for from it would follow that the word of wisdom and of science, insofar as they are freely given graces, would not be distinguished from wisdom and science insofar as they are gifts of the Holy Ghost. It would likewise follow that the word of science would not be a freely given grace, because it would not conduce to the salvation of others. — Therefore I judge it truer to say that the word of wisdom and of science are freely given graces ordered not only to the cognition of the mysteries of faith, and of the moral precepts, but also to their expounding and preaching to others. — The Words of Wisdom and of Science are freely given graces ordered not only to knowing, but also to preaching and expounding to others the mysteries of the faith.

This truth is evident from sacred Scripture itself, which calls these freely given graces the word of wisdom and of science: but speech is not bare cognition, but one made known to another through the external manifestation of the internal concept. Hence Saint Jerome, expounding the aforesaid passage of the Apostle where he commemorates these freely given graces, says: The word of wisdom is to speak wisely, aptly, and reasonably. Reason also supports this; for the preaching and manifest exposition of the mysteries of faith is the most fitting medium for bringing men back to God: therefore in this preaching and exposition above all must the reason of wisdom and of science be constituted, insofar as they are freely given graces.

But the word of wisdom and of science differ from one another, as Saint Augustine teaches lib. 12. De Trinitate, chap. 14. in these words: Where the praised text said: To one indeed by the Spirit is given the word of wisdom, to another the word of knowledge according to the same Spirit, these two doubtless it distinguishes, although it does not there explain what the difference is, and whence either may be discerned. But they differ, (in my judgment), in the manner in which wisdom and science differ, insofar as they are gifts of the Holy Ghost, proportion preserved; whence just as wisdom is the gift of the Spirit by which the most lofty mysteries of the faith are known, and science another gift, by which those things are known which pertain to morals; so the word of wisdom is the grace of expounding the most lofty mysteries of faith; but the word of science is the grace of expounding those things which pertain to morals, as Saint Augustine teaches in the passage cited above. Or, as pleases others, the word of wisdom is the grace of expounding the mysteries of the faith through eternal and divine causes and through the proper principles of the same faith; but the word of science is the grace of expounding the same mysteries through effects, examples, and other sensible things.

§ II. On Faith, which is Freely Given Grace. — Faith, insofar as it is freely given grace, is said by some to be constant confidence in God, indeed unto obtaining, and especially unto working miracles. And it is put forward by Saint Paul 1. Corinthians, chap. 13, If I should have all faith, so that I remove mountains, etc. By which words is signified that the translation of mountains, and other miracles, could have been done through some faith; which faith because it has such an end, namely that it regard public utility, will rationally be freely given grace. Thus judge Saint Chrysostom, and other Fathers.

You will object. By what reason is faith thus distinguished from the operation of virtues? — I answer, that it is distinguished as some total cause from some partial effect, because first the operation of virtues, according to this opinion, is some external effect depending upon this faith as upon its cause. — Furthermore, faith of this kind has other effects besides the operation of virtues, which, as we said, is constant confidence in God, not only unto working miracles, but even unto obtaining anything whatsoever, whether regarding the body, or the soul, or the goods of fortune. Thus judge certain Doctors.

But more rightly faith, insofar as it is here expounded, is said to be the most certain and most firm assent, or a certain eminent understanding of the mysteries of God, such as is required in a Doctor, not only for conceiving them, but also for expounding them to others, and likewise for defending them intrepidly and firmly. Thus calls it our Lyranus on 1. ad Cor. cap. 12; which explication surely accords with the mind of Saint Paul; for Romans 12. he says the Prophet and Doctor ought to teach according to the reason of faith, that is, according to the measure of that eminent understanding, and cognition of mysteries, which he received from the bounty of the Holy Ghost. Wherein Saint Stephen above all was admirably imbued, whom, as we read Act. 6, the Apostles chose full of faith, that is, full of the understanding of the mysteries of God. Whence the Jews were not able to resist the Spirit, and wisdom, with which he spoke. Hence in the same place he is said to be full of grace and fortitude, on account of the firmness and intrepid constancy with which he prevailed toward defending the faith, and expounding its mysteries, even at the expense of his own life.

§ IV. What are the Grace of Healings, and the Operation of Virtues. — Here there is no discourse concerning the operation of virtues such as can be found in a physician, or even in a demon, who can dissolve infirmity by the virtue of medicines, and by applying actives to passives, in a sensible manner, as physicians do, or insensibly, as sometimes happens through the aid of demons; but we treat only of that virtue which proceeds from the special concourse of the Holy Ghost, such as was once in the Prophets, and Apostles, and is also now in certain sons of the Church, though not so frequently. — Now the grace of healings is a supernatural virtue of healing bodies; but the operation of virtues is a certain higher virtue of working miracles, and more remarkable prodigies, whether for utility, or for terror, or for the punishment of unbelievers. Thus in Saint Peter that marvelous virtue of healings existed, when he commanded the lame man to walk; equally existed in him the virtue of working miracles, while at his word Ananias and Saphira fell down dead, etc. — Yet the difficulty is whether those who are endowed with this virtue concur morally or physically in those marvelous operations. Which difficulty indeed the Doctor solves in 4. dist. 1. quaest. 1. et 4. saying that they concur in this only as instrumental and dispositive causes, not indeed naturally, but from the good pleasure of God, who is the principal agent in the production of this marvelous effect: for just as, the due organization of the human body being posited, God infuses the rational soul by pact; so, the application of words or other sensible signs being posited, by pact he produces this or that other marvelous effect.

§ V. On Prophecy. — The name of Prophecy has various significations in sacred Scripture. First indeed sometimes it signifies to sing eternal praises. Thus 1. Reg. chap. 10. Saul is said to be among the Prophets, and we read that he prophesied with them, when the Spirit of the Lord leaped upon him, and he prophesied in the midst of them, namely of the prophets, whose band he had encountered; that is, he sang divine praises with them. It also sometimes signifies an agitation by an evil spirit. Thus 1. Reg. chap. 18. we read of the same Saul: And on the next day an evil spirit from God rushed upon Saul, and he prophesied in the midst of his house. 3. It signifies to work miracles. Thus Ecclesiasticus chap. 46. the corpse of Eliseus is said to have prophesied: And his body prophesied; namely because, as we read 4. Reg. c. 13. certain men burying a man saw robbers, and cast the corpse into the sepulchre of Eliseus, which when it had touched the bones of Eliseus, the man revived, and stood upon his feet. 4. Not rarely the name of prophecy denotes to interpret the mysteries of the faith. Thus 1. ad Cor. 14, But let the prophets two or three speak, and let the rest judge: but if any thing be revealed to another sitting, let the first hold his peace: for you may all prophesy one by one: that all may learn, and all may be exhorted: and the spirits of the prophets are subject to the prophets. — But the name of Prophecy, insofar as it is here used, properly signifies the cognition of those things which are remote from the senses, and impenetrable to the ordinary apprehension of men, such as future contingents, the secrets of hearts, the decrees of the divine will; and likewise those things which are so dispersed in place and time that they cannot become known except by God revealing.

Now for this prophecy two things seem especially necessarily required: namely the apprehension and conception of the truth to be revealed, and the assent by which the intellect of the Prophet judges most certainly this thing to be true: The first is caused by revelation: the second by a certain supernatural light: for since that assent is supernatural, it must be caused through some supernatural light; not indeed through the light of faith: because the light of Prophecy is more evident than the light of faith, especially when the Prophet knows, and distinctly perceives that which he reveals to others; but through a certain other light specially ordered to this, which accordingly may be called the prophetic light. — From these it follows that prophecy, insofar as it is here used, namely for a freely given grace, is nothing other than the cognition, and prediction of all those things which cannot naturally be known, and are very far removed from the senses.

You will object. In what manner is Prophecy distinguished from the grace of preaching, and of speech: and which of those graces is the more excellent of the other? — Our Alensian answers, quaest. 67. m. B. That Prophecy is divine revelation denouncing the events of things with immutable truth: in prophecy therefore, he says, there are two things, revelation, and denunciation. As regards revelation, which is in cognition, the grace of prophecy is worthier, and the act of prophesying more eminent; and it is greater to prophesy than to preach: as regards denunciation, the grace of preaching is worthier, because preaching is unto the salvation of souls, but prophesying unto the denunciation of truth, which is less than the salvation of souls.

§ VI. What Discretion of Spirits Is. — The sacred Doctors do not agree in their explanation of this freely given grace: for there are those who, with St. Thomas, affirm that the discretion of spirits is nothing other than a certain supernatural judgment concerning the internal thoughts of the mind. The rest, however, concur with St. Chrysostom in the explanation of the freely given graces, holding that discretion of spirits is a knowledge of internal movements, or of counsels or precepts delivered by certain men, or even of apparitions and sensible locutions through good or bad Angels: and accordingly, upon this opinion, discretion of spirits extends itself to all things which can lead into evil as well as into good, whether inwardly or outwardly.

This discretion of spirits, moreover, can come about in two ways: namely, either through Christian prudence, using one's own industry and the principles of faith, with holy Scripture admonishing, above all 1 John chapter 4: Do not believe every spirit, but try the spirits whether they be of God. 2. Through a certain special instinct and motion of the Spirit, whereby spiritual men especially are spurred on and moved, to whom this grace is chiefly granted, according to that saying, 1 Corinthians chapter 14: If any man seem to be a prophet or spiritual, let him know the things that I write unto you, that they are the commandments of the Lord. Of this latter discretion of spirits, which alone is a grace freely given, we treat here principally. Whence discretion of spirits, insofar as it is a grace freely given, can be called both a judgment concerning internal thoughts and a knowledge of internal movements, counsels, apparitions, and sensible locutions through good or bad Angels: for each of these modes contains utterly all knowledge of things to be judged which are most uncertain and obscure; for things which are evidently good or evil have no need of discretion of spirits in order to be separated from one another: and therefore there is need only of this discretion of spirits when matters are obscure and difficult to know, and insofar as by common judgment they can lead into error as well as into truth, into evil as well as into good, into superstition as well as into religion under the pretext of piety, and through certain prodigies which are thought to be miracles. For which reason St. Anselm says that this discretion of spirits is most difficult, both because the senses and thoughts of man are inextricable, and because the evil Angel frequently transfigures himself into an Angel of light; nevertheless this knowledge can be certain and easy, as Gerson says, through intimate inspiration and an internal repose and spiritual sweetness, or illumination from external darkness, whereby all the darkness of doubt is put to flight. How, however, true prodigies can be discerned from false and masked ones, and likewise the locutions and apparitions of good Angels from those which occur through evil Angels, we have already said in the Treatise On the Angels, in treating of the infestation of demons.

§ VII. What the Gift of Tongues Is. — First of all it must be observed that the kinds, or gift, of tongues can be understood in two ways: First, namely, so that the Apostles and Apostolic men, using only one idiom, were heard and understood by all nations, the Spirit evidently imprinting upon minds the attached meaning of the words, or multiplying the voices in their ears. Second, so that the same Apostles and Apostolic men truly spoke in various idioms.

Nor are there lacking among the holy Fathers and sacred Interpreters those who approve the former mode, leaving aside the latter. Among others, moreover, Ecumenius stands out in chapter 2 of the Acts, as well as Basil, Bishop of Seleucia, in his Sermon on the Innocents, in these elegant words: When the Spirit, which flowed down from the heavens, distributed the operation of hearing among the towers of the gathered nations received in the tongue of the Apostles, accommodating the voice of each one to the sense of all who heard, and grace adapting, so that the river of speech which poured forth from the lips became familiar to the ears of all, by the Spirit transformed into that which was akin to the voice of each of those who were listening. This mode likewise seems able to be confirmed from that passage of Acts chapter 2: How do we hear, every man, our own tongue wherein we were born? And also from the fact that St. Peter is recorded to have converted in one single sermon there three thousand men, who nevertheless were from diverse nations.

The latter mode nearly all the rest of the holy Fathers approve; especially the Nazianzene, Oration 11, where after he has enumerated those two modes, he prefers the latter to the former, and proves it from these words of Acts 2: We have heard them speak in our tongues the wonderful works of God: for, he says, these words (in our tongues) accord not only with the verb we have heard, but also with the participle speaking, as though the diverse tongues had not been heard before the Apostles spoke. He confirms it further from that passage, 1 Corinthians 14: I thank my God that I speak with the tongue of you all. By which words the Apostle signifies that he speaks in the idiom of all. He proves it moreover by reason: because, he says, according to the former mode, the gift of tongues would follow not as a grace freely given to the Apostles, but only to the hearers. To this can be added that for the spreading of the faith and the preaching of the Gospel the Apostles ought not only to be understood by others; but they ought moreover to understand others, namely, that they might answer their objections, resolve difficulties, and also remove doubts.

This latter opinion, moreover, appears more probable, although the former does not lack probability. Whence one could answer to the aforesaid texts of Scripture praised in confirmation of the former opinion, either that not only Peter preached to these three thousand men, but also the other Apostles, according to that saying there: Are not all these who speak Galileans? and thus it could have happened that each one, on account of the various nations, used various tongues: or that the same St. Peter preached not for one hour, nor in one place, but in divers sermons: and thus according to the opportunity of place, time, and nation he could use now one idiom, now another. Hence kinds of tongues are nothing other than a faculty supernaturally infused, whereby various idioms and their meanings can be known, and which those who possess such knowledge can use whenever they wish, and whenever occasion offers itself: every particle of which definition appears sufficiently from what has been said shortly before.

§ VIII. What the Interpretation of Speeches Is. — It is a certain special grace communicated especially to Doctors for interpreting languages in writing or in speech. The particles of which definition are established from this, that, as historians have related, at the beginning of the nascent Church the Holy Ghost provided for certain learned men, who were called Interpreters: for the reason that they interpreted foreign tongues in which some Prophet prophesied in the Church. — Moreover, after the Apostles had delivered sermons, their speeches were interpreted for those who were unskilled either in the idiom which they had used, or in the meaning of the words which they had uttered, lest namely the Apostles themselves, devoted to weightier matters, should be detained by this business, and burdened by that labor. — Finally, such Interpreters were accustomed to expound to the people the epistles written by the Apostles, and to turn them into another idiom, just as the seventy Interpreters had turned the Old Testament into the Greek idiom.

You will object. Unto what end was the aforesaid interpretation of speeches useful or necessary in the primitive Church; since then the gift of tongues was familiar to all, who invisibly receiving the Holy Ghost through Baptism and Confirmation were even visibly endowed with the charisms of the same divine Spirit, and above all with the gift of tongues. For we read in Acts 19 that when Paul had come to Ephesus, and had laid hands upon the newly converted faithful, the Holy Ghost came upon them, and they spoke with tongues, and prophesied. Again in chapter 10 we read that the same Spirit fell upon all the gentiles gathered together with Cornelius: For they heard them speaking with tongues, and magnifying God. — I answer, that the interpretation of speeches was ordered unto the common utility of the faithful: for the gift of tongues was not familiar to all, as is evident from these words, 1 Corinthians 14: Do all speak with tongues? But that which is brought forward from Acts 10 and 19 proves only that on certain occasions the gift of tongues was communicated together with Baptism and Confirmation, namely, that the virtue and efficacy of Baptism might appear the more, and the truth of faith be the more confirmed.

You will object 2. Why did the Apostles make use of Interpreters, since they themselves excelled in the gift of tongues, and likewise in the interpretation of speeches? For St. Irenaeus relates, book 3, chapter 1, and St. Jerome in the book On Ecclesiastical Writers, that St. Peter used the holy Mark as Interpreter, and St. Paul Titus. — I answer, that the Apostles indeed had the interpretation of speeches; nevertheless they sometimes made use of the ministry of Interpreters, not for their own proper utility, but for that of the faithful: for after the Apostles had preached, it was necessary that someone make the foreign voices known to hearers unskilled in them, using the familiar idiom of each of the hearers: it was necessary also that the deeper mysteries of faith, which the Apostles had expressed in fewer words, be expounded with fuller discourse to those whom the Apostle calls idiots.

You will object finally: by what reasoning is the interpretation of speeches distinguished from the gift of tongues? — I answer, that the interpretation of speeches signifies and imports above the gift of tongues a certain special assistance of the Holy Ghost for preserving fidelity to the words, maintaining clarity of the sentences, and attaining the sense of the speech being interpreted; for, as St. Jerome complains in many places, it is exceedingly difficult in translations of foreign tongues to obtain all these things, on account of the various proprieties of each idiom, for neither does translation suffice word for word, but a certain attainment of the sense is also required. Moreover, the interpretation of speeches adds above the gift of tongues a knowledge of the deeper mysteries contained in the words, which knowledge St. Paul often designates by the broad name of Prophecy, and refers to together with the gift of tongues.

You ask: whether the freely given graces are habitual or actual? — I answer, that some of them are habitual, namely those which inhere permanently, of which sort are wisdom, knowledge, faith, the gift of tongues, and the interpretation of speeches: others truly are actual, and are motions and as it were instantaneous and temporal impressions, which cease when the effect ceases, of which sort are the grace of healings, the working of miracles, the gift of Prophecy, and discretion of spirits. The reason of this answer is, because we use habits when we will: whereas the Saints did not use these given graces at their own pleasure, but only when moved by God: therefore they were wont to pour forth prayers to God, that they might work some miracle, for example: but they used the former graces at their pleasure, and upon occasion given, and public utility presenting itself: therefore the former inhere after the manner of habit: the latter truly only after the manner of act. Nor does it matter that the Apostle in the first Epistle to the Corinthians, chapter 14, says that the spirits of Prophets are subject to Prophets; for it must be understood with respect to the enunciation and locution only of those things which have been revealed to them, not truly with respect to that revelation, which they receive not as they will: whence the Apostle writes there: Let two or three prophets speak, and let the rest judge; but if anything be revealed to another sitting, let the first hold his peace.