Scotus Academicus, Tomus octavus: De Divino Gratiae Beneficio, et initium De Virtutibus Theologicis

HOW GRACE IS NECESSARY FOR KEEPING THE COMMANDMENTS.

Note 1. The divine commandments (insofar as concerns the present question) are of a twofold kind; for some are natural, which can be known by the light of nature, and are contained in the two tables of the Decalogue; and these comprise observance, whether toward God or toward one's neighbor: while others are supernatural, which, supposing man's elevation and ordination to a supernatural end, prescribe to him the means necessary thereto, and oblige man to apply himself to them, insofar as he may be able to attain that end; such are the precepts concerning the exercise of the three Theological virtues, and likewise those which pertain to the frequentation, administration, and worthy reception of the Sacraments: for supposing that man is ordained to attain a supernatural end, he is bound by God's precept to elicit acts of the supernatural virtues and to frequent the sacraments. — But among Theologians no controversy is raised over the supernatural precepts: for it is certain that they cannot be kept without the help of grace: but the difficulty concerns the precepts of the law of nature, a question about which Authors vary in many ways. For some contend that all those precepts can be kept by fallen man according to their substance; though not according to their manner, without grace, and this steadfastly, and on every given occasion, provided no gravest temptation presses. Others indeed judge that fallen man can indeed observe all the mandates of the law of nature, for a brief time, and this negatively only, namely when within that brief time nothing occurs which moves us to act against a negative precept. Finally others think that man, constituted in the state of fallen nature, can by no means, without the help of grace, keep some mandates of the law of nature in such a way that in their observance, even as regards their substance, he does not sin by failing to add the circumstance of the end which the Legislator intends.

Note 2. The observance of the precepts is twofold: for one is as regards the substance of the work, another as regards the intention and manner of the one commanding. Precepts are said to be observed as regards the substance of the work when man carries out what has been prescribed on account of the honesty of the act: but they are said to be kept as regards the manner of the one commanding, insofar as they are done in the way God has prescribed, namely that those precepts be kept out of charity, and order the one acting toward eternal life. This distinction is certainly so well established that St. Pius V. in the Bull of excommunication complains that this distinction of Baïus is condemned: in one way as regards only the substance of the works of the precepts: in the other as regards a certain determinate manner, namely according to which they are able to lead the one acting to the kingdom of heaven, that is according to the manner of merits, as fictitious and to be rejected. Now man does what is commanded as regards the substance of the work, when he fulfills the precept on account of the end of the work and its honesty: but he does so as regards the manner, when he carries out the thing prescribed on account of the end for which the Legislator intends it to be done. — It is certain, however, that neither the supernatural precepts as regards their substance, nor even the natural ones as regards their manner, can be kept without the help of grace, as appears from Canon 5. of the Council of Carthage: where anathema is pronounced against him who asserts that man without grace can fulfill the divine mandates; and also from the Council of Orange, Canon 23. in these words: Men do their own will, not God's, when they do what displeases God: but when they so do what they will as to serve His will worthily, so that worshipping Him they do what they do, still it is the will of Him by whom what they worship is prepared and commanded. And by Canon 25. it is defined that God first inspires in us faith and love of Himself, that with His help we may be able to fulfill what is pleasing to Him. These decrees are chiefly to be understood concerning the observance of the supernatural precepts as regards their substance, and also as regards their manner. Hence there remains only the difficulty, whether without the help of grace those precepts can be kept as regards the substance of the work. 3| 4|Note 3. The observance of the precepts, as regards their substance, can yet be regarded in a twofold way: namely either collectively, that is for all the precepts considered generally, or only distributively, for some one of the precepts considered singly and apart from the others. Further, that observance of the precepts as regards their substance is either regarded precisely as it apprehends only the very work done with its intrinsic circumstances, pertaining to its honesty and moral integrity: or insofar as it is apprehended together with the lack of the extrinsic circumstance of the end of the one acting, which the legislator intends, and which the one acting ought to attend to in that fulfillment of the precepts. 5| 6|First Conclusion. — MAN CANNOT, BY THE FORCES OF FREE CHOICE ALONE, AND WITHOUT THE HELP OF GRACE, KEEP ALL THE PRECEPTS OF THE LAW OF NATURE COLLECTIVELY, NEITHER AS REGARDS THE SUBSTANCE OF THE WORK, NOR AS REGARDS THE MANNER OF THE ONE COMMANDING. This is common among Catholics against the Pelagians: and the Subtle Doctor defends it in 2. dist. 28. num. 3. where, responding to the objection that the Gentiles are said by the Apostle to the Romans to keep the law naturally, he says: The Gentiles were able to live justly by keeping the law of nature, and then they became a law unto themselves: that is, by the law of nature written in their hearts, they directed themselves inwardly to live rightly as the Jews did by the written law: but these did not truly live without grace, because grace could have been in them, supposing the hypothesis apart from the observance of the Mosaic law. Hence it appears how greatly some more recent Thomists hallucinate, while they assert that the Subtle Doctor taught that all the precepts of the law of nature can be kept by the forces of free choice alone; and therefore accuse him more boldly of the Pelagian error.

Proof is added for the Conclusion: first indeed from sacred Scripture, namely from all those places in which the Apostle signifies the Mosaic law to be weak, feeble, impotent, and insufficient for justifying: indeed as concluding man the more tightly under sin: Because, he says in Romans 7., occasion being taken, sin wrought in me all concupiscence: For sin, he says, was dead in me without the law: but when the mandate had come, sin revived. Which indeed St. Augustine explains in book De Spiritu et Littera, cap. 1. with this elegant similitude. At the same time, he says, as if the impulse of waters not flowing into one part, it becomes gentler with an obstruction placed, whose movement when it senses, precipitated with a greater mass, it is hurled forth more vehemently down the slopes: for I know not in what way this very thing which is coveted becomes more pleasant when it is forbidden. Whence there the Apostle says: I see another law in my members fighting against the law of my mind, and captivating me in the law of sin, which is in my members. And afterwards asking: Who shall deliver me from the body of this death? He answers: The grace of God through our Lord Jesus Christ. By which he signifies that the grace of God is necessary, that the precept thou shalt not covet be fulfilled.

The same truth is proved from the Council of Carthage, in which, as appears from the Synodal Letter to Innocent, the Pelagians were condemned for asserting; that God so instituted man, and created his nature, that it might fulfill the law of God by its own will, whether written naturally in the heart, or given in letters. For the natural law is signified by the law written naturally in the heart. Similarly from the other Council of Carthage, Canon 5. anathema is pronounced against him who asserts that man without grace can fulfill the divine mandates: and he confirms his doctrine from that saying of Christ in John 15. Without me you can do nothing. It accords with Orange 2. Canon 25. in these words. Men do their own will, not God's, when they do what displeases God: but when they so act that they wish to serve the divine will, although willing they say, what they do, still it is the will of Him, by whom what they will is prepared and commanded. But if men could keep the law of nature without grace, they would serve the divine will without grace, which is there condemned. And by Canon 25. it is defined that God first inspires in us faith and love of Himself, that with His help we may be able to fulfill what is pleasing to Him.

It is proved thirdly, from the holy Fathers, but especially from St. Augustine, who everywhere throughout all his works published against the Pelagians, particularly in the book De Spiritu et Littera, devotes himself wholly to showing that the law cannot be kept without grace. Whence cap. 10. of that same book, he professes expressly that the just man must believe that he can in no way supply the infirmity of his nature for fulfilling what that law commands, unless divine grace comes to his aid. Hence in the book De Gratia Christi, cap. 3. For everyone, he says, the law is one thing, grace another, such that the law not only profits nothing, but even harms greatly, unless grace helps, and thus the utility of the law is shown, since it makes those guilty of transgression need to flee to grace to be set free, and to be admonished that they may overcome evil concupiscences: for it commands more than it helps, it teaches the disease exists, it does not heal: nay rather, because it is not healed, there is need, that more attentively and anxiously the medicine of grace may be sought. And in Sermon 13. De Verbis Apostoli, cap. 2. The law was given, that man might discover himself, not that the disease might be healed, but that with the disease growing heavier the physician might be sought. — St. Prosper subscribes, in the book Contra Collatorem, cap. 1. Behold, he says, He can command that no evil be done: but from evil He cannot liberate. The mandate makes known, but does not bestow the effect of obedience, unless what is killing by the authority of the letter becomes vivifying by the spirit of grace. St. Fulgentius also assents, in the book De Praedestinatione, cap. 20. The law, he says, without grace can show the guilt of faults, not heal them: it points out wounds, it does not minister medicines: but that the precept of the law be fulfilled, grace ministers the operation: that thus the law reveals all things, grace bears indulgence: of the law therefore it is, that we know sins, of grace, that we amend them... therefore it belongs to the vice of nature, that man sins. to the aid of the law, that it show to man the precept which he knows not: but to the gift of grace it belongs, that He heal the vice of man, which guilt brought upon him, and the knowledge of the law accumulated.

It is urged also by reason; for fallen man is moved for the most part by graver temptations, while the natural law obliges, and by dire motions and goads of concupiscence is drawn back from its observance: but (as we shall say below) man cannot overcome grave temptations without the benefit of grace: therefore neither can he fulfill all the precepts of the law of nature: Then, for fulfilling every law, there is desired a supreme resolve of never sinning: nor of transgressing that law on any occasion whatsoever. otherwise he will most wisely deflect from it: but such a resolve cannot be established on account of the enticements of temptations pressing in from everywhere, alluring to forbidden sensible good, unless it be upheld by the help of divine grace: therefore such help is required for the observance of the law. Then finally, that the law of nature be kept entirely, it would behoove man by his own forces never to sin anywhere: but that is a signal benefit of grace: for, says the Doctor in 2. dist. 28. n. 1. Free choice cannot of itself guard against every mortal sin in this state, because the soul without grace is stained by some sin, whether original or actual, from which it is not freed except through grace. And presently, this set aside, not all the precepts can be observed.

You will object 1. St. Paul the Apostle to the Romans cap. 2. says that the Gentiles, who have not the law, do naturally the things of the law: therefore the precepts of the law can be observed by the forces of nature. — I distinguish the consequent: they can observe some, and for a brief time, where grave occasions drawing back from that observance are absent, I concede: they can observe all with constant will, and on every occasion given, I deny.

You will object 2. That word of Deuteronomy 5. The mandate which I command thee this day, is not above thee: therefore its observance does not exceed natural forces. — I answer, that the law is not above the grasp of man as regards cognition, namely because the knowledge of it need not be sought from kings far away, I concede: as regards its observance, I deny. And the following text favors this distinction, neither is it placed afar off, nor situated in heaven, etc.

You will object 3. But Ecclesiasticus 15. If thou wilt observe the mandates, they shall keep thee. — St. Augustine answers, in the book De Gratia et Libero arbitrio, cap. 16. It is certain, he says, that we keep the mandates if we will: but since the will is prepared by the Lord, it must be sought from Him, that we will so much as suffices, that by worshiping we may do. It is certain that we will when we will: but He makes us will the good, of which was said what I placed a little before, the will is prepared by the Lord, of which it was said: the steps of man shall be directed by the Lord, and He shall will his way: Of which it was said. It is God who worketh in you both to will and to accomplish. It is certain that we do when we do, but He makes us do, bestowing most efficacious powers upon the will, who said Ezekiel 36. I will make you walk in my justifications, and keep my judgments, and do them.

You will object 4. Very many are read in sacred Scripture to have observed God's mandates without the aid of grace: therefore these can be so kept. Proof meanwhile. First, for Cyrus, a stranger to the grace of faith, kept the natural law: for God said to him Isaiah 44. Thou shalt fulfill all my will. And cap. 46. He names him the man of his will. Moreover Matthew 19. a certain prince not yet imbued with the faith and doctrine of Christ, hearing from Himself: If thou wilt enter into life, keep the mandate, responded: All these have I kept from my youth. Finally the Apostle to the Philippians 3. speaking of himself, when he was not yet converted to faith in Christ, testifies that according to the justice which is of the law he conversed without blame in the law. That is, observed it entirely, and without that reprehension: therefore, etc. — I answer first, that Cyrus fulfilled the will of God, not as regards the observance of the precepts of the natural law, inasmuch as he was an idolater, a man of blood, and a plunderer and invader of other kingdoms, as appears from his history, as St. Jerome rightly notes in the first chapter of Zechariah: but he is said to have fulfilled the will of God for this reason, because he did what had been commanded him by God, namely that he should release the people of Israel from captivity, and should see to the restoration of the temple and city of Jerusalem entirely. Which kind indeed of the divine will can be served by any impious man whatsoever; on that ground even the demons, torturers of the damned, could be said to fulfill the will of God. To the second I answer, either that prince was illuminated by divine grace in keeping the precepts, since moreover he was a Jew, and of the people of God, and thus must not be said to have fulfilled the law by his own forces; or, which is more probable, only with masked and hypocritical mind he seemed to keep the law, which indeed appears true from that excessive adherence of his to his riches; for the sacred text notes that when Christ our Lord had urged him to sell all things which he had in ownership and dominion, and to spend their price upon the poor; when he heard these things he was saddened, because he was very rich, as St. Luke narrates, cap. 18.; and that excessive inclination toward riches was a sin against the law of nature. For the coveting of money is the root of all evils. But to the third I say, that the Apostle said he had conversed without blame in Judaism because he had lived commendably in the Jewish manner, abstaining from actions containing manifest injury of God or neighbor; such are perjuries, homicides, adulteries, and other open crimes, which the law prohibits: but the Apostle does not wish to signify that he was altogether innocent; for in 1 Timothy 1., he says he was a blasphemer and contumelious, and calls himself first, that is chiefest, of sinners: and to Titus 3. For we ourselves also, he says, were some time unwise, unbelieving, erring, serving desires and various pleasures.

You will object 5. No one is held to the impossible: for, says St. Augustine, in the book De Natura et Gratia, cap. 43. God commands not impossibilities: but each one of men, even a Gentile, is obliged to fulfill the whole law: therefore he can keep it.

I distinguish the major: no one is held to that which is impossible absolutely and simply, I concede: that which is impossible according to the usual forces of nature, but becomes possible with divine help, I deny: for thus St. Augustine solves a similar argument of Celestius, in the book De Perfectione iustitiae, cap. 2. where Celestius had objected to him: Whatever is sin is either what can be avoided, or what cannot be avoided: if what cannot be avoided, sin is not: if what can be avoided, man can be without sin, which can be avoided: for no reason or justice suffers at least that to be called sin which cannot by any means be avoided. That argument, in order that St. Augustine may solve it, says: We answer the precept can be avoided, if the vice of nature be healed by the grace of God through Jesus Christ our Lord; for it is so far unhealthy, insofar as it either sees not through blindness what must be done, or does not accomplish it through infirmity. Which solution indeed he explains in the following chapter with this elegant similitude: When we see a lame man, who can be healed, we say rightly indeed, this man ought to be without lameness, and if he ought, he can: and yet he cannot immediately when he wills, but when by treatment applied he has been healed, and medicine has helped his will. And below he says: It is most wisely prescribed to man, that he walk with upright steps, that when he perceives himself unable, he may seek medicine for healing the wound of sin. — Thence cap. 43. of the book De Natura et Gratia, and thence the Council of Trent, Session 6. cap. 11. God commands not impossibilities, but by commanding admonishes thee both to do what thou canst, and to ask what thou canst not, and He helps thee that thou mayest be able.

Second Conclusion. — Not all the precepts of the law of na- ture are fulfilled unless sanctifying grace is required absolutely, but only by the ordinary disposition of God.

The first part is proved: nothing impedes the observance of the natural precepts except ignorance, which is in the intellect, and infirmity, which is in the appetite, as St. Augustine teaches, book 2. De Remissione peccatorum, cap. 17. where he says: Men do not will to do what is just, either because they know not whether it is just, or because it delights not: for we will anything the more vehemently, the more certainly we know how good it is, and the more ardently do we delight in it. Ignorance therefore and infirmity are vices which impede the will from being moved to doing a good work, or from abstaining from an evil work. But that what lay hidden may become known, and that what delighted not may become sweet, belongs to the grace of God, which aids human wills: whereas to make known the good that lies hidden, and to make sweet what delights not, suffices actual healing grace from ignorance and infirmity, even if it heal not from sin: therefore absolutely, and from the nature of the thing habitual grace is not required, but actual grace could suffice for keeping all the precepts of the law of nature.

The second part is proved, namely that habitual or sanctifying grace is necessary by the ordination of God for keeping the law of nature entirely. It is proved, I say; first from the manner of speaking of sacred Scripture signifying the inconstancy and infirmity of men toward any good whatsoever, unless they be strengthened, elevated, and fortified by the divine Spirit. Hence Psalm 35. De Peccatoribus, it is said: Their way is darkness and slippery, and the Angel of the Lord pursuing them. By which is signified that it is necessary that at times men wander, stumble, and rush headlong into sin; no otherwise than those who walk over slippery places and in darkness, unless the gloom of sins be dissolved by the irradiating light of sanctifying grace. To this tends also that word of Ecclesiasticus 27. Who restraineth himself not in the fear of the Lord; quickly shall his house fall. Thren. 1. Jerusalem hath sinned a sin, therefore she is made unstable. Isaiah 57. I hid my face from thee, and was angry: and he went wandering in the way of his own heart. And afterwards: The impious are like the boiling sea, which cannot rest, and its waves overflow, unto trampling down and mire.

It is proved secondly, from the holy Fathers, Chrysostom teaching that, As a ship lacking a rudder goes not where it wills, but where the storm drives it: so man destitute of the grace of God is borne into the precipices of sins. St. Augustine concurs, in the book De Catechizandis rudibus, last chapter, where he teaches that he fulfills not the law unless he who has received the divine Holy Spirit, coeternal with the Father and the Son. And in the book De Spiritu et Littera, c. 26. where he says: When it is said, the doers of the law shall be justified, what else is said than they shall be justified? for the doers of the law are just. St. Gregory 22. Moralium, cap. 12. Sin, which by penance is not soon deleted, draws by its own weight to others. Therefore a sinner cannot long persevere in the observance of the precepts with any actual grace whatever: presently also for the persevering and constant fulfillment of the law of nature it is necessary that man put off sin: but sin cannot be washed away in the ordinary way except by habitual and sanctifying grace: therefore this is necessary for fulfilling the precepts of the natural law.

You will say: A habit is not necessary except for acts proper to itself, e.g. the habit of temperance for acts of temperance, and so of the rest: therefore charity or sanctifying grace is not required for the acts of the natural virtues. — I distinguish the antecedent. It is not required per se, I concede: per accidens, and on account of impediments to be removed, I deny. For temperance is required that the act of justice be exercised constantly, namely by impeding lest man be allured by corporeal pleasures toward evil things, and be turned aside from rendering to each his right.

You will say 2: If a sinner cannot fulfill the whole natural law without habitual grace, everyone will be bound to confess immediately, once he recognizes himself infected with mortal sin; but the consequent is against the common sentiment of Theologians: therefore also the antecedent. The sequence of the major is proved; everyone is bound to avoid the proximate occasion of sinning: but if man existing in sin cannot fulfill the whole natural law, he will always be in the proximate occasion of sinning; therefore, etc. — I deny the sequence of the major: and of its proof I deny the minor: for he who is in sin, although he cannot abstain wholly, and throughout the whole of life, from sin, can nevertheless for some time be removed from it with actual helps, even when temptations press in; but he who is in the proximate occasion of sinning ordinarily succumbs, as soon as that occasion of sinning occurs.

You will say 3: If Faith and habitual grace were required by the ordinary law of God for fulfilling the whole natural law, no infidel could fulfill it; inasmuch as he lacks faith and sanctifying grace; but the consequent is false; otherwise since he ought to fulfill that law, he would be bound to the impossible: therefore, etc. — I answer: Enough has been touched already in the superior conclusion regarding this objection. Nevertheless further. I distinguish the sequence of the major: the infidel will not be able to fulfill the whole natural law as long as he remains in infidelity, I concede: if he have abandoned infidelity, I deny: for no one is an infidel who has not the means by which he can be led to faith, as will appear in the course of this treatise.

Third Conclusion. — Besides habitual grace there is also neces- sary the actual help of God for keeping the whole law of nature.

It is proved first from sacred Scripture: for John 17. Christ our Lord suppliantly implores help of the Father for His Apostles, now already just and clean. Holy Father, He says, keep them in thy name: that is, by thy help, as St. Chrysostom interprets Homily 80. on John.

It is proved similarly from the Council of Carthage, in these words related by Celestine to the Bishops of Gaul, cap. 5. The will is prepared by the Lord, and that they may do some good, He Himself touches with paternal inspirations the hearts of His faithful: and from Orange Canon 10. The help of God is always to be implored by the reborn and by Saints, that they may arrive at a good end, or be able to persevere in good work.

It is proved thirdly from the sentiment of the supreme Pontiffs: First indeed Innocent the First in his rescript to the Council of Carthage says: That we need daily help we cannot deny: for he knows this well who lives, we pray that we may live better and more holily, or when we are turned aside from goods by depraved sentiments, that we may return to the sure way, the more shall we need its help. To this add Celestine cap. 5. and 8. to the Bishops of Gaul, Zosimus to all the Bishops of the City. Felix the Second as compiler of the Canons of the Council of Orange, and Boniface the Second as approver of the same.

It is proved fourthly from the holy Fathers: but especially from St. Augustine, who inculcates this truth in many places, particularly in the book De natura et gratia, cap. 26. God Himself, he says, when through the mediator of God and men, the man Jesus Christ, He spiritually heals guilt, or raises up the dead, that is, justifies the impious, and when He has led him onward to perfect maturity, that is, to perfect life and justice, He does not desert him, if he desert Him not, that he may live piously and justly always: for as the eye of the body even most fully healed, unless helped by the whiteness of light, cannot discern: so man even most perfectly justified, unless he be divinely aided by the eternal light of justice, cannot live rightly. God heals therefore not only that He may delete what we have sinned, but also that He profit us lest we sin. And in the book De libero arbitrio, cap. 6. explaining these words of the Canticles. Who is this that ascendeth from the desert leaning upon her beloved brother? he says. When she was deserted she merited nothing good: therefore now that perchance she may eminently stand well, or if she perseveringly lean upon Him by whom she has been made white: on account of which Jesus Himself, upon whom the whitened one leans, said to His disciples, Without me you can do nothing.

This truth is confirmed also by reason. First indeed, although habitual grace heals the soul totally in order to guilt, it nevertheless does not heal every infirmity arising from original sin; such that it could persevere long in good, and deflect from evil, unless it be divinely aided; presently therefore besides that habitual grace, actual grace also is needed for relieving that infirmity and restoring vanity, nay rather corroborating it. — Then, it is established that the just often fall into sin, while God denies them actual help: whence David, Thou hast turned away thy face from me, and I am made troubled: therefore habitual grace does not suffice for avoiding sin, and keeping the precept. — Finally, the just ought to render thanks to God for each good work, and ascribe to God glory and honor for that work, and accordingly that work has God as its chief Author: but He would not have to be so judged, unless He concurred specially, and by particular actual help, toward exercising that good work: therefore God besides habitual grace also concedes actual helps to the just man for avoiding sins, and fulfilling the precepts.

You will object 1. By Canon 6. of the Council of Milevis or Carthage, in which it is defined that the grace of God, whereby we are justified through our Lord Jesus Christ, avails not for the sole remission of sins which have already been committed: but also for help, that they not be admitted: therefore there is no need of the actual grace of God in the justified man, that he fulfill the law of God. — I distinguish the antecedent: insofar as the grace of God whereby we are justified is taken for habitual grace together with its appendages, that is, with the actual helps accompanying it, I concede: insofar as it is taken precisely for habitual grace separated from the actual helps, I deny.

You will object 2. God concedes habitual grace to man for this purpose, that he may act well, and avoid sins; therefore another help is superfluous. The antecedent is proved: if by habitual grace the just man were not able for living well, his condition is not better, nor greater virtue toward good than the sinner's; since the sinner even with actual grace can at times keep the law: but the consequent is absurd; therefore also that from which it follows. — I deny the antecedent; likewise also the major of its proof: for the justified man possesses greater virtue and disposition for keeping the law than the sinner; both because no one except the justified can keep it entirely, and because sanctifying sacramental grace has annexed to it the right to certain actual helps, to be conceded in due time and occasion given, through which the whole law of nature can easily be observed.