Scotus Academicus, Tomus quintus: De Creaturarum Corporalium et de Homine

Note 1. From Hugh of St. Victor, Annotation on book 4. of Kings, chapter 11, that there are, in general, four modes of temptation:

For first, he says, temptation is light but hidden, namely when someone is lightly tempted, and yet does not yet understand whether that thing about which he is tempted be evil: e.g. when someone is lightly tempted concerning an office or prelacy; the temptation is light and hidden, because he knows not whether what he desires is expedient for him. Another temptation is light but manifest, when someone is lightly, but manifestly, tempted concerning evil: e.g. when someone is lightly tempted concerning fornication; the temptation is light, because he is lightly tempted, and manifest, because it is manifestly concerning evil. Another is a grave and hidden temptation, when someone is gravely tempted, and yet knows not whether that about which he is tempted is harmful to him: e.g. when someone is gravely tempted concerning prelacy or some ministry; the temptation is grave, because he is gravely tempted; but hidden while he knows not that a diabolical snare lies hidden there, for the devil tempts concerning exaltation in order that through exaltation he may fall more grievously into damnation. Finally, another temptation is grave and manifest, when someone is gravely and manifestly tempted concerning evil: e.g. when someone is gravely tempted concerning fornication; the temptation is grave, because he is gravely tempted; and manifest, because it is manifestly concerning evil. The Psalmist well designates all these modes of temptation, where he says in Psalm 90: Thou shalt not fear from the fear of the night: from the arrow that flieth in the day: from the business that walketh about in the dark: from invasion and the midday demon: for the temptation light but hidden is the fear of the night: the temptation light and manifest, the arrow flying in the day: the temptation grave and hidden, the business walking in the dark: but the temptation grave and manifest, the invasion and the midday demon.

Note 2. From the Seraphic Doctor, in 2. dist. 21. ad dubium 3.

Temptation can be considered in five ways: namely as regards the motive, as regards the instrument, as regards the effect, as regards the degree, and as regards the mode. First indeed, as regards the motive, it can be considered either generally or specially. If generally, temptation is thus divided into that which is from the enemy, and from the flesh, and from the world, as is said in a certain Sequence: The world, the flesh, the demons, stir up diverse battles. If specially, so that the motive is said to be not only that which moves by way of object, but also that which induces and excites by way of impelling cause, temptation is rightly divided into that which is from the enemy, and that which is from the flesh, since each inflames unto evil. — Likewise as regards the instrument, temptation can be considered in two ways: first indeed generally, and thus is that division of St. Gregory, namely that some temptation is through vices, some through scourges: secondly specially, and thus is that division of temptation which the Gloss sets forth upon that verse, Every abominable food, etc., where it is said that temptation is fourfold: of which the first is error, or ignorance by the force of truth: the second, the difficulty of overcoming concupiscences: the third, weariness of the good: the fourth, the tempest of the age. — In the third way, namely as regards the effect, temptation is likewise considered, either generally, and thus it is twofold: namely one diabolical, the other human: of which the first terminates in mortal sin: the second truly, either in none, or only in venial, as the Gloss has it upon that verse: Let not temptation take hold of you, etc. If specially, thus is that division of St. Augustine, saying in the book On Christian Doctrine, that the devil tempts, either by recalling the flesh, or by infusing natural things, or by despoiling of graces. — But if temptation be considered as regards its degree, this can also be done in two ways: if generally, one temptation is exterior, another interior: if specially, temptation is accomplished in a threefold manner, namely by suggestion, by delectation, and by consent, as St. Gregory says upon that verse of James: Every one is tempted by concupiscence, etc. — Finally, if temptation be considered as regards the mode of tempting, this consideration can be made either generally or specially. If generally, it is done either explicitly or implicitly. If implicitly, thus are the four degrees of temptation assigned above by Hugh. But if explicitly, thus is that which St. Bernard sets forth through seven members: of which the first is importune, namely whereby he insolently presses. The second doubtful, namely whereby he involves the mind in the fog of doubt. The third is sudden, namely that which forestalls the judgment of reason. The fourth hidden, namely that which escapes the order of deliberation. The fifth violent, whereby our strength is transcended. The sixth fraudulent, whereby namely he seduces the mind. The seventh perplexed, which is impeded by various vices. But if temptation be considered specially, insofar as it is restricted to the temptation of the devil, its modes can be assigned in two ways: either implicitly, and thus St. Augustine divides it, saying in a certain sermon, that the devil tempts as a lion, tempts as a Dragon: or explicitly, and thus is that division of Gregory upon Job, where he says: Against the faithful servant the enemy insinuates all the machinations of his cunning, namely, that by oppressing he seizes, by lying in wait he surrounds, by threatening he terrifies, by persuading he flatters, by driving to despair he breaks, by promising he deceives.

Note 3. That although Eve, newly formed by God, adorned with the divine gifts of grace and the endowments of human wisdom, and moreover instituted Queen of the sublunary world, princess of living creatures, mother-to-be of the whole human race, rival of the supernal Angels, and candidate for Heaven and the everlasting fruition of God: nevertheless her perfection was far less than Adam's, for it did not pertain to her to have the most certain and most perfect knowledge of all animals, and of all their properties, virtues, and faculties: but to have a knowledge of the things to be done, and of those which pertain to the administration of the household, and to all the duties which were to be discharged and fulfilled toward her husband and children: hence it is no wonder that she did not stand astonished at the serpent speaking with her; for, as SS. Bonaventure and Thomas teach in 2. dist. 21., she could have judged that some Angelic spirit lurking in the serpent was benevolent toward her, and was consulting well for her advantage. Or, because newly created she knew not that the faculty of speaking was naturally given to no animal: for both the novelty of the things, and the inexperience of Eve herself, and the fact that the perfection of the female condition would by no means require a perfect knowledge of all natural things, were the cause of her ignorance. But why the devil lurking in the serpent attacked Eve before Adam, and by what art he overcame her, is here to be determined.

First Conclusion. — The devil, cunning in deceiving, first tempted the woman, that, she being overcome, he might the more easily attack and cast down Adam.

This is evident plainly from Sacred Scripture, and stands openly from the narration of Moses, who relates in Gen. 3. the colloquy of Eve with the serpent, and adds: The woman therefore saw that the tree was good to eat, and fair to the eyes, and delightful to behold, and she took of the fruit thereof, and did eat, and gave to her husband. Whence it is written in Ecclesiasticus chapter 25: From the woman came the beginning of sin, and by her we all die. Now the devil tempted Eve before Adam, because he knew her first, more ready to believe, secondly weaker to resist; thirdly more prone as to the cause. This moreover was known to him from the weaker and less noble constitution of her body, and the nature of her sex, from the lesser excellence and perfection of her natural endowments, and because God had made the woman for the man: but he knew that Adam himself was more instructed in all things, and firmer in resisting: whence he judged that, the woman being persuaded and deceived, he would easily through her impel Adam to sin.

The holy Fathers explain this truth luminously, above all St. Augustine lib. 14. De Civit. Dei, cap. 11. The female, he says, that is, the inferior part of that human union, began, that she might reach by degrees to the whole, not judging the man easily credulous, nor capable of being deceived by erring: but while she yielded to another's error. Hence St. Ambrose in Sermon 15. upon Psalm 118. teaches that it seemed to the devil that the love of woman would be stronger for undermining a manly soul than his own poisons and diabolical assaults: That serpent, cunning and crafty, he says, to accustom his arts of wickedness, committed himself rather to feminine enticements than to his own poisons. And so the woman drew the man, whom the serpent had not dared to tempt, with a certain soft and alluring amorous sedulousness of affection.

Odo subscribes, book 3. of the Moralia on Job; where he seems to intimate that temptation through a woman is more vehement than through the devil; for, speaking of the temptation of Job made by a woman, after he had been tempted by the devil, he says: The ancient enemy was accustomed to tempt the human race in two ways, namely that he may either break the hearts of those standing by tribulations, or soften them by persuasions: therefore in both ways he exercised himself vehemently against blessed Job: for he brought losses of goods upon the father of a family: and he turned to subtle arguments of tempting: therefore he held the heart of the woman, and found in her as it were a ladder by which he might ascend to the heart of the man.

The Seraphic Doctor proves the same in 2. dist. 21. q. 3. by a twofold reason; of which the first is sought on the part of the wisdom of God: the second on the part of the cunning of the devil. The first, I say, on the part of the wisdom of God:

For the Lord permitted the devil to tempt in such an order: both on account of the man's exercise; and also lest the woman should have an excuse: and also on account of our instruction. On account of the man's exercise, because he himself was so strong, and endowed with a spiritual mind, that he could not only resist the temptation of the serpent, but also the suggestion of the woman; and therefore he was permitted to be tempted with a stronger temptation. On account of doing away with the woman's excuse, the temptation ought first to begin from her: for if the man had sinned first, since the man is the head of the woman, and has dominion over her, it would not be much to be wondered at, if the woman should consent to him: nay, she would have a great color of excuse. On account of our instruction also this was permitted: for in that sensible mode of tempting we come to know the mode and progress of the invisible temptation: and as that one came from the serpent to the man through the mediation of the woman; so this one comes from sensuality to the higher portion of reason through the mediation of the interior.

Likewise on the part of the cunning of the devil the reason can be taken:

The devil attended to the woman being 1. of lesser wisdom. 2. of weaker constancy. 3. of more importunate adherence. Because she was of lesser wisdom, she was easier to seduce; and therefore the devil, the seducer, willed through her to make for himself a passage to the man. Because she was of weaker constancy, she was easier to pervert: and therefore the devil, the assailant, attacked the city of man from that side from which the approach was less fortified. But because she was of more importunate adherence, the devil thought that if she were first conquered, she would not rest until she had perverted the man: whence it is said of the woman, that she is a snare to those who pass by, and her bands are the cords of her love. Therefore the devil, the cunning instigator, began from the feminine sex. And thus it is evident that, as Scripture says, it was in every way congruous that the temptation begin from the woman: both because the cunning of the devil expected this: and because the divine providence disposed this.

Thus the Seraphic Doctor.

You will say 1. Eve had no greater propensity to sinning than Adam; since she was endowed with an equal innocence, grace, and wisdom with him; nor did her sensitive appetite strive against the soul in her: therefore it was not easier for the devil to overcome Eve by tempting than Adam: therefore no reason appears why the devil ought rather to have tempted the woman than the man. — I answer, indeed Eve had not a greater propensity to sinning than Adam; yet she did not obtain an equal stability and firmness with him; for, as the Seraphic Doctor says, she had not corruption in effecting, nor deception in sight. Yet she could fall more easily than the man, in whom nature was stronger, and grace is believed to have been more abundant.

You will say 2. It is a greater disgrace and reproach to be conquered by a woman than by a man, and it is far more glorious for a man to conquer than a woman: since therefore the devil, with an affection of proud glory, most greedily seeks after, it seemed more congruous that he should first attack the man rather than assault the woman. — I answer, indeed a victory won over a man is nobler than over a woman: but it is more laudable to overcome a woman by wrestling than to succumb to a man by attacking: since however the devil had to fear lest, if he began his temptation from the man, he should find him resisting him constantly, the same, with cunning prudence and malice, judged it better to begin the temptation from the woman, whom he judged easier to overcome.

You will say 3. It belongs to a bold and generous soul to attack the stronger adversaries: but the devil is most bold and most insolent, and above all presuming upon his own strength: therefore he ought not to have assailed the woman, but the man, as being far stronger than his wife. — I answer, it shows a greater truly generous soul when one attacks an adversary in open combat: but not where the battle is waged more by cunning than by boldness: but the devil is not only bold and insolent, as the Seraphic Doctor says, nay he is also cunning and deceitful: and the same in tempting did not undertake the more difficult way, but rather the more efficacious: and therefore he judged the weaker part should first be attacked, that, she being conquered, he might overcome the stronger with less trouble.

You ask 1. Why did God permit the first Parents to be tempted by the devil, whom He knew would be cast down by the temptation?

St. Augustine answers, book 11. On Genesis according to the letter, chapter 6, that therefore God permitted it, that now, he says, by temptation the virtue be proved and opened, and the palm is more glorious, not that the tempted one did not consent, but that he could not tempt. Since also they who, having forsaken the Creator, go after the tempter, tempt more and more those who abide in the word of God, and set before them an example against the dereliction of concupiscence, and instil a pious fear against pride. Hence the Apostle says: Attending to thyself, lest thou also be tempted. For humble is that humility, as much as any humility is, whereby one is subjected to the Creator, lest we presume upon our own strength as needing not His aid, by all the divine Scriptures it is commended to all with continual care. Since therefore even by the unjust the just profit, and by the impious the pious, it is said in vain: God would not create those whom He foreknew would profit evil men, since they are born both that their goods may be admitted for exercising good wills, and that justly they may be punished for their evil will.

You ask 2. How did the serpent approach Eve: namely, whether in Paradise, or outside Paradise?

Rupertus answers, book 3. On the works of the Trinity, chapter 2, that the serpent was outside Paradise; For, he says, Paradise was the proper dwelling of man, given to him by the great grace of the Creator, with the condition of good work and most diligent guardianship interposed: now if Paradise was common to serpents, it follows that that place of delights was not without wolves and lions and other beasts: and the same would not be judged of such beatitude that it might deservedly be called the Paradise of pleasure, and be said to have been planted by God Himself. Therefore the serpent, especially possessed by the devil corporally invading, was not in Paradise: but the woman, for the sake of the body and its culture, while she walked incontinently, perhaps looking out what was outside Paradise, and gaping more closely and ambitiously upon the serpent as cunning, and upon the sweetness of that land, a place was given to the devil, and an occasion briefly proffered, whence he might tempt Eve. Thus Rupertus. — But the opinion of nearly all the holy Fathers and Theologians cries out against this, and the very narration of Moses seems to indicate quite plainly that that serpent was within the place of Paradise, inasmuch as he conversed with Eve with the tree of the knowledge of good and evil present and in view.

You ask 3. How was the very colloquy of the serpent with the woman not known to Adam?

I answer, perhaps Eve, newly formed, withdrew from Adam and wandered through the garden, at that time namely when Adam himself was wholly detained by the sight of the celestial orbs, and the consideration of the whole of nature, or by the contemplation of God Himself the Creator of all things, and therefore did not diligently care for and contain the woman delivered to him by God, as befitted a pastor and husband. By this example other wives are taught not easily to withdraw from their husbands, lest perchance they fall in with serpents and tempters. Whence St. Gregory Nazianzen wrote to Olympias not less prudently than piously: Commit outward business to the man; do not often put forth thy foot beyond the threshold, lest thou set out to public games and an unbridled crowd: for thence modesty is shaken out even from the bashful, and joined to no eyes; but the loss of modesty is the most certain parent of all disgraceful deeds. Let thy house be to thee as the city and the groves; make not the sight of thee copious to others than to thy kinsfolk, even to the most pleasing and honest, and to the priest, and to old age excelling in youth; nay, do not even show thyself in the sight of pious men, whom however thy husband does not bar from his house, although otherwise thou holdest them dear and honorest them. For what so great utility can anything bring, as a good husband, if in him alone thou hast fastened thy love? Take care also that thou blushest at the sight of men, having eyes blind, and brow depressed to the ground. This moreover must thou guard against with the utmost zeal, lest thy tongue be borne along with headlong and unbridled impulse: it is better to be silent, when to speak is useful: than to speak when time imposes silence with indecorous and dishonest speech. Would that this first woman had observed these things, that she might neither put forth her foot beyond the sight of her husband, nor incautiously have begun a discourse with the serpent! would that she had neither given the serpent the opportunity of seeing her, nor had she herself seen the serpent! for from the sight to the speech, from the speech to disobedience, and from disobedience to ruin, she advanced with fatal step.