Scotus Academicus, Tomus quintus: De Creaturarum Corporalium et de Homine

Note 1. The dignity and excellence of any work must be drawn chiefly from a threefold source: namely from the supreme skill of the Artificer; from the matter, whether by reason of its price or of its usefulness; finally from a figure and form wrought with most exquisite care. Indeed, the skill of an artificer sometimes shines forth more manifestly in the fashioning of a lesser than of a greater work. For far more expert surely was the sagacity and industry of that Artificer who had fitted chariot and steeds with such elegant deftness that they could be covered by the wing of a single fly, veil-like, and borne through the air in flight, than was the art and ingenuity of that Craftsman who had hammered out the immense Colossus of Rhodes in bronze. In like manner the summit of divine Wisdom, and the power and activity of omnipotence, are more commended in the production of a tiny ant than in the fabrication and construction of a huge elephant. Likewise the dignity of matter must be estimated not so much from price as from usefulness; especially in those things which are of supreme utility and necessity, both for the public or particular good, and for attaining some most excellent end: whence bread and other foods seem dearer and more precious to man than gold, silver, and other things commended for their price, since those serve immediately for the conservation of life, these only for pleasure.

Note 2. Since the human body was formed that it might serve the rational soul in eliciting its operations, chiefly in acquiring knowledge, it had to be made such as to be capable of the senses. Indeed, whereas the rational soul was to be created naked and devoid of all science, and had itself to hunt down and acquire it through the senses, it was necessary that the body of man be furnished and adorned with all the senses. But touch is as it were the foundation of all the senses, constituted in a certain mediocrity and quasi-tempering of the primary qualities; for beyond the others it serves efficaciously toward acquiring knowledge from experience. For the other senses are oftentimes deceived in perceiving their objects, whether on account of a vitiated organ, or on account of too great distance of the object to be perceived, or on account of a medium indisposed: but their error is corrected by touch, which is not subject to these deceptions, as we demonstrated in the first Question of our Philosophy. Whence it comes that the human body ought to have been fabricated of that matter which was most suitable for touch.

Note 3. From our Alensis, pur. 2. p. 8. lib., member 2, ad primum: the rational soul, like the human body, can be considered in a threefold state: namely of innocence, of fall, and of glory; in which, he says, the body and soul of the first man shared a certain parity in nobility and ignobility: First, just as the soul in the first state, namely before the fall, was allotted to be noble, in which it lived the life of nature integrally, strengthened and sustained by the life of grace, which was in potency and habituation unto its final and ultimate esse of nobility: so likewise the body in that state was in the integrity of nature best in its genus, and, by means of the fruits given it for sustenance, could be perpetuated in that esse until it attained its most noble esse.... Wherefore just as the soul in the life of nature was nourished and sustained by grace, as by spiritual food, in its progress toward its best esse: so the body was promoted by corporal food, the fruits of paradise, unto the most noble esse of the body. Second, just as in the state of guilt the soul was allotted to be ignoble, incurring by its fall into sin a twofold evil, namely of corruption and of spiritual death, whereby it was made unworthy of the good for which it was created: so likewise the body was allotted to be ignoble, incurring a twofold evil, namely of corruption and of the necessity of dying; and was made unworthy of the good for which it was created. Third, just as the soul, by advancing, recovered aptitude and dignity for obtaining its optimum, which it had lost through sin, upon possessing which it is allotted to be most noble: so likewise the body, through the exercises of bodily virtues and the Evangelical torments of mortification, is advanced to the beatific state, in which it will obtain its most noble esse ».

These things thus premised, we must now demonstrate the dignity and excellence of the human body: first from its divine Artificer; then from its ministries and offices toward the rational soul; lastly from its most excellent configuration and form.

First Conclusion. — THE PREROGATIVE OF THE HUMAN BODY AMONG SENSIBLE THINGS IS, THAT BEYOND ALL OTHER CORPOREAL THINGS IT WAS FIGURED BY A SPECIAL WORKMANSHIP OF GOD, AS IT WERE BY HIS OWN AND DIVINE HANDS; AND LIKEWISE ON ACCOUNT OF ITS VARIOUS MINISTRIES AND OFFICES TOWARD THE RATIONAL SOUL.

This Conclusion consists of two parts, whereof the first is common among the holy Fathers, who commend and illustrate this truth by many texts of sacred Scripture. Chiefly indeed St. Ambrose, expounding on Psalm 118, octonary 10, those words, Thy hands have made me and fashioned me, weighs them thus: Beasts thy hands made not, but thou didst say: let the waters bring forth reptiles of living souls; and the earth brought forth according to kind quadrupeds, and reptiles, and beasts of the earth. But me, he says, thou hast made, me thy hands have figured: that is, thou didst not figure the beasts with thy hands, nor reptiles, nor flying things. And further on he observes that God fashioned the human body not only with one hand: but that He applied a double hand to this work. Hands, he says, have fashioned me: he says hands, in the plural, not hand: whereas everywhere else it stands: I have strengthened the heaven with my hand, and my hand hath made all these things: in the constitution of man what did not abound seems abundant beyond what abounded for the making of the whole world. One hand formed the heavens, as it is written; and both the hands of God figured man, as we read. From which it is established how great is the supercelestial dignity of the human body, since to form the celestial body God applied but a single hand; to fashion the human body He labored with a double hand. — This truth Tertullian commended above the rest, lib. De resurrectione carnis, c. 6, wherein he extols human flesh thus: How much did He confer who made it, when already then it gloried that that littleness, that clay, arrived at whatever are the hands of God: blessed enough even if merely touched. For what if by no further work the figment stood constituted straightway from the contact of God? So great a thing was in hand, when that matter was being wrought out. And so it is honored as often as it suffers the gift of God, while it is touched, while it is shaped, while it is drawn out, while it is refashioned. Recollect that whole God occupied about it, devoted to the thing, not only in sense, work, counsel, wisdom, and above all in that very affection which guided the instruments. A few words later, rebuking Marcion because he would make the human body vile, seeing it had been drawn from earth and figured, he says: What gift does he make toward weakening the origin of man, by recalling the name of earth, as if sordid, as of an element lying prostrate? Since even had another material been chosen for stamping out man, the height of the Artificer ought still to be recollected, who judged it worthy in choosing it, and made it in working it. Phidias fashions and polishes his Olympian Jove out of ivory: the tooth of an already-dead beast, and of no distinguished beast at all, yet the supreme light of the age: not because Elephant, but because Phidias is so great. That is, the work is commended not by the price of the material, but by the skill of the Artificer. How then, true God and very God, had He not cleansed whatsoever dignity of material from His own operation, and purified it from all infirmity? There will remain this, that man was more honorably framed by God than God by man? All these things Prudence described in most elegant verses in Apotheosis:

So great his love of earth, so great his fondness for us, That he deigns with divine fingers to take up the soft Clod of the fat soil: nor does he judge sordid the contagion Of the clinging mass. Light he bade complete the work: It was done as he bade: all things, his command Imperious, drew forth new forms as they emerged. Man alone merited to take in the Lord's right hand His moldable face, and to be born of the river of Deity's breath.

From these things therefore it is established how great is the dignity of the human body, since it has had for its Maker God omnipotent, an Artificer of peculiar wisdom; for all other bodies, nay even the spiritual intelligences, stood by the mere command, nay mandate, of God alone; but the human body was wrought by the hands of God. Not indeed by true and corporeal hands (whatever Tertullian imagined, thinking God had assumed the likeness of a body that He might fashion the human body), but by mystical hands, that is, by a special unfolding of divine wisdom and omnipotence: for by these two excellencies, namely wisdom and power, God, as it were with hands, molds and works all His creatures.

Second Conclusion. — THE BODY OF MAN CONTINUALLY WAS FORMED FROM ELEMENTARY MATTER RATHER THAN FROM CELESTIAL.

This truth the Seraphic Doctor proves in 2 dist. 17, art. 2, qu. 1, by a fourfold reason, to be sought from the four orders which man holds, either toward God, or toward the Angels, or toward corporeal creatures, or toward himself. First, indeed, the order of man toward himself required this; because, he says, man was therefore created and born that he might know many things, not only by intellectual but also by sensitive cognition: therefore he ought to have a multiform body consisting of diverse organs: that the diverse senses might serve for knowing various objects. Moreover, because he was created with supreme liberty of will, by which he could live as he pleased, original justice preserved; or become liable to death, original justice forfeited by his own fault through voluntary sin committed: he also ought to have a body which should be devoted not only to life but also to death: and so the order of man toward himself required that his body be multiform and corruptible, and therefore it ought to be not celestial but elementary.

Second. The order of man toward inferior creature required the same; for since corporeal creatures were made inferior to man, that they might serve him for attaining his end, he also ought to be formed of composite matter, namely that he might admit the service of inferior creatures, so that through him as mediator those inferior creatures might in some way be promoted to beatitude, and glorified together with man. But this could not have been had man been formed of celestial matter; for in that state he would in no wise have needed the service of inferior creatures for the attainment of his ultimate end: therefore on this account it was fitting that his body be constituted of elementary matter.

Third. This same thing the order which he holds toward a peer creature, namely the Angel, required; for just as one rational creature was made near to God, and in the supreme place, as in the Empyrean: so another rational creature ought to be made in the lowest place, namely the earth: and therefore his body ought to be constituted of such a nature as befitted such a habitation: and so more fittingly was it formed of an elementary than of a celestial nature.

Fourthly, finally. This also befitted the order which man held toward God as toward his ultimate end; for it was fitting that man be subjected to God, that by humility of subjection he might ascend whence the Angel had fallen by loftiness of elation: and therefore he ought to have a body constituted of earthly and inferior nature, that, reckoning himself earth and ashes, he might be subject to God in all things.

You will say 1. To the most noble form ought to be given the most noble matter; since matter must be proportionate to form: but the rational soul is a most noble form: therefore it ought to have the most noble matter. But the most noble among bodily natures is the celestial nature: therefore the human body ought to have been formed of it.

The Seraphic Doctor answers that the nobility of matter is not to be regarded from the nature of the matter itself, but from the order it holds to form. Therefore since the human body was formed not only that it might be vivified by the rational soul: but also that it might serve it for meriting eternal beatitude, by means namely of those virtues which can be exercised only by benefit of the body, accordingly it was fittingly formed, not of incorruptible matter, but of that which should be liable to corruption, and apt likewise for the manifold operation of the senses, such as is the elemental nature, and not the celestial.

You will say 2. It was becoming that such a body be formed for man, from which his integral nature should consist: but such did not exist with a corruptible body and an incorruptible soul; since the soul by reason of its incorruptibility is perpetually vivifying of the body; but a corruptible body is not perpetually vivifiable: therefore it is not apt to be united to the soul. For according to Aristotle, what is possible on the part of the form must also be possible on the part of the matter: as in like manner what is possible on the part of active power is possible also on the part of passive power, otherwise that power would be frustraneous; but God and nature work nothing in vain in things, nor permit it to be: therefore it would have been more fitting that the immortal soul have an incorruptible body, and therefore one formed of incorruptible matter, namely the celestial.

The Angelic Doctor answers, 1 part, q. 76, art. 5, that in the matter chosen as cause of any form a twofold condition is found: one which is chosen per se, that by it the matter be fitting for receiving the form, and suitable that the form may perform its proper actions; the other truly, which is not chosen per se, but which, since it naturally follows the former condition from necessity of the matter, cannot be rejected and removed from the matter. By way of example, an Artificer, to fabricate a saw, chooses iron, as matter suitable thereto, which namely by its hardness is apt for cutting; but that the teeth of the iron saw can be dulled and affected with rust follows from necessity of the matter. So for the intellectual soul there is due per se a body of equal complexion, capable of vegetative and sensitive soul; but such a body from necessity of the matter entails corruptibility. So he. As though he said, God indeed fitted the human body to the rational soul not inasmuch as it was corruptible, but inasmuch as it could serve it for performing its operations; so that corruptibility bears an accidental relation to the soul itself to which the body is fitted, because, clearly, that corruptibility follows from the condition of the matter, and not from the intention of the agent assuming the matter, to unite it with such a form. Add that God also constituted the immortality of the body from the beginning in the choice and power of the soul itself, conferring on it the gifts of innocence, which assuredly had it preserved them, its body would not have been subjected to corruption and death.

Third Conclusion. — THE HUMAN BODY IN ITS CONFIGURATION AND FABRIC SURPASSES ALL OTHER CORPOREAL THINGS.

This is common among the holy Fathers; and St. Ambrose extols it thus on Psalm 118, Octonary 10. If anyone wish to consider the very fabric of the human body, he says, he will judge nothing on earth more precious: for man is lofty in stature, comely in culture, pleasing in hair; not curved after the manner of any of the other animals; but sublime by the very law of nature, who looks up into heaven with free gaze, bowed down to earth by no craving servitude of neck: but as conscious of his own liberty, and rich, a witness of his own authority. But what he here commends in general, he sets forth in detail, lib. 9. Hexaemeron. c. 9, wherein he elegantly delineates the excellence, beauty, and grace of the human body from the wondrous constitution of its members thus: Let it seem, he says, that one and the same is the substance of all earthly bodies, stature and height being in certain beasts greater: nevertheless the form of the human body is more graceful, its posture erect and lofty, so that neither be there enormous tallness, nor vile and abject littleness: then the very build of the body is sweet and pleasing, so that neither gluttonous vastity be an horror, nor slender thinness an infirmity. But first of all let us recognize that the fabric of the human body is the counterpart of the world. For as heaven towers over air, lands, and sea, which are as it were certain members of the world; so also we see the Head eminent above the remaining limbs of our body, and most excellent of all, as heaven among the elements; as citadel among the remaining walls of the city. In this citadel moreover dwells a certain royal wisdom, according to the Prophetical saying: for the eyes of the wise are in his head: this is safer than the rest, and from it vigor and providence are conveyed to all the members. For what profit the strength and force of arms, what the swiftness of feet, unless there minister a certain imperial power of the head as of their prince? For from this all things are either destitute or all are supported. What does fortitude do, unless it use the eye as guide in battle? What flight, if sight be lacking? The whole body is blind, shuddering in darksome plight, unless illumined by the aspect of the eyes. What therefore Sol and Luna are in heaven, that are the eyes in man. Sol and Luna are two luminaries of the world: but the eyes are certain stars shining in flesh from above, illuminating inferior things with clear light, nor suffer us to be entangled in some shadows of night. Our sentinels keep watch day and night: for from sleep they are roused sooner than the other members, and keeping vigil look around on all; for they are nearer to the brain, whence flows all use of seeing. The head therefore explores all things with the eyes, ransacks hidden things with the ears, knows secrets, hears what is done elsewhere in the world. But the crown of the head itself, how sweet and pleasing! how beautiful the hair! how reverend in old men! how venerable in priests! how terrible in warriors! how decorous in youths! how adorned in women! how sweet in boys. From trees indeed one may estimate how great is the grace of the human head. On the head of every tree is the growth, there is all its beauty, whose foliage covers us either from rains or defends us from Sun. Take from the tree its foliage, the whole tree is unlovely. How much greater therefore the adornment of the human head, which with the hairs of the head guards and clothes our brain, that is, the seat and origin of our senses, lest it be vexed either by cold or by heat? For he is wholly of all things: and therefore where injury harms, there grace preeminently helps. What is man without the head, when the whole is in the head? When you see the head, you recognize a man. If the head be wanting, no recognition can be: lies the ignoble trunk, without honor, without name. Heads of princes alone cast in bronze, and features drawn from bronze or marble, are adored by men. Not undeservedly therefore do the other members minister to this as their counselor, and encompass it with servile gesture as a numen, and venerate it placed on high. Whence with lordly power it directs the services of certain little servants whither it will, and decrees commands to each to be obeyed. You may see everything serving its emperor gratuitously with stipend. Some carry, some feed, some defend, and exhibit their ministry: obeying as prince, serving as lord: thence proceeds as it were a certain watchword, whereby the feet should know what course to run, whereby the hands, soldiers, execute their duties in completing works: what form of abstaining or eating the imposed discipline of the belly hold. To this the forehead, free, open with bare temples, whereby it betrays the habit of mind in its appearance: now glad, now sadder: now set toward severity, now remitted toward gentleness, expressing by silent signs the inward will: a certain image of the soul. It speaks in the countenance, basis of faith, on which daily the name of the Lord is inscribed and held. It a twin hedge of eyebrows follows, which offer ramparts to the eyes and preface grace: that both the loveliness of beauty may smile, and the diligence of protection assist: for if anything sordid fall from the head, whether sand's dust, or dewy mist, or sweat of moistened crown, it is caught by the eyebrow, lest offense disturb the tender sight of soft eyes: the eyes adhere as it were to certain brows of mountains, that they may be safer under protecting mountain peak, and as if placed on high, survey all things from a superior stage. Most excellent also is the gift of hearing, with a proud grace over vision. Therefore the ears are more extended, that they may both preface ornamental beauty, and catch all that whatsoever of dregs or moisture has flowed from the crown; meanwhile that within their bounds the voice repelled may enter inner windings without offense: for were it not so, who would not be stunned at every louder sound of voice, since amid their very defenses we often feel ourselves deafened by unforeseen stroke of clamor? Then you may see them put forward as it were certain bulwarks against the harshness of cold and the flagrancy of heat, that neither cold penetrate the open ducts, nor excessive heat scorch. But the interior winding of the ears affords a certain rhythm and discipline of modulation: since through the windings of the ears a certain rhythm is effected. Moreover that the very windings of the ears retain received speech, usage itself teaches us: since as in hollows of mountains, or recess of rocks, or winding of streams, the voice is heard sweeter, and echoes back bearing suave responses. Even the dregs of the ears themselves are not useless, which bind the voice that its memory be more tenacious within us, and its charm. But of the nostrils what shall I say, which by their curved and elongated opening afford a sort of cavern for receiving odors, that odor pass not through punctorially but linger longer in the nostrils, and by their duct graze the brain and senses? Therefore odor, received, flames longer than speech resounds or sight appears. Often what you have smelled in a brief moment breathes in your nostrils the whole day. Through them too the purgations of the head flow away, and are diverted without loss or any offense of body. There is also no mean sense in touch, and in it a most pleasing pleasure and sincere judgment: for oftentimes we prove by touching what we cannot prove by eyes. Last is also the office of the Mouth, or tongue, which however ministers strength to all: for neither would the eyes have vigor of seeing, unless bodily substance received virtue, which is conveyed by food and drink: nor ears for hearing, nor nostrils for smelling, nor hands for touching, unless the whole body were refreshed with aliments. For we fail in strength, unless we repair it by constancy of competent food. Finally, [the senses] comforted are delighted with no pleasures of the senses, but as it were bereft feel not their blandishments. Why should I describe the rampart of Teeth, whereby food is prepared, and fullness of voice expressed? Who without teeth would delight in nourishment? Finally we often discern those ripened early aging the faster for this very thing, that with teeth lost they can assume no virtue of stronger food. Therefore mute infancy, because it has not yet the organ of voice. Of the tongue too not only in speaking, but even in eating, is the most precious office; for it is as it were the plectrum of the speaker, and a certain hand of the eater, whereby it offers and ministers the food flowing down to the teeth. But why speak of the kiss of the mouth, which is the pledge of piety and charity? Sheep and dove kiss: but what is that to the grace of the human kiss, wherein shines forth the sign of friendship and humanity, in which the full faith of charity is expressed with affection? Wherefore also the Lord, condemning as it were a species of prodigy in the traitor, says: Judas, dost thou betray the Son of man with a kiss? That is, thou turnest the sign of charity into a token of betrayal, and evidence of infidelity: [turnest] the pledge of true peace into cruelty: What therefore is the mouth of man, but a certain approach of discourse, fountain of disputation, hall of words, storehouse of will? There follows the Throat, through which vital commerce and the passage of spirit is infused to the whole body. Next succeed the arms and sturdy masses of shoulders, strong hands for working, and elongated fingers apt for holding. Thence apter use of working, thence elegance of writing, and that penman of the swiftly writing clerk, whereby the oracles of divinity are expressed by voice. The hand is that which ministers food to the mouth: the hand is that by which it leans on illustrious touches, which as conciliatrix of divine grace is borne to sacred altars, through which we offer and receive the heavenly sacraments: the hand is that which works and dispenses alike the divine mysteries, whose name the Son of God deigned not to refuse to be called by, David saying: The right hand of the Lord hath wrought strength, the right hand of the Lord hath exalted me. The hand is that which made all things, as God omnipotent said: All these things my hand hath made. The hand is the bulwark of the whole body, protectress of the head. Which although lower in place, shields the entire crown, and beautifies it with honorable ornament. Who worthily unfolds the lattice of the Chest, and softness of the Belly? For otherwise softer viscera could not be guarded, and the recesses of the intestines would doubtless be wounded by hard bones. What so salutary as that the Lung be joined to the heart by neighboring boundary, that when the heart has burned with wrath and indignation it be the sooner tempered by blood and humor of the lung? and therefore the lung is softer, because it is ever moist, simultaneously that it soften rigor of indignation. This also holds tractuous vicinity with the gall: which while it takes wherewith itself is fed, wipes off whatsoever dregs it detects, that through the finer fibers of the liver the thin and subtle remnants of foods may pass, which may be turned into blood and profit the strengths, and not be cast out with dung and dregs. But the circumplex coils of the intestines, though bound by no knot, yet mutually linked together, what else do they show than the divine foresight of the Creator? That food pass not quickly through, and presently run down from stomach; which were it so, perpetual gullets and continual lust of devouring would be begotten in men. For the viscera emptied and exhausted, while by momentary effusion there must needs be generated an inexpleble and insatiable craving for food and drink, which doubtless immature death would follow. Therefore prudently food is first concocted in upper womb, next is labored in liver, until its juice digested by vapor be transfused into the remaining parts of the body, and with that substance human limbs are nourished: which the young receive for increment: the aged for perseverance: but the remainder, as it were superfluous, is led down through intestines, and diverted through that cross door. What of the office of the Feet, which sustain the whole body without any injury of burden? The flexible knee, whereby beyond the rest offense of the Lord is mitigated, anger soothed, grace provoked: for this is the gift of the highest Father toward the Son: that in the name of Jesus every knee shall be bent, etc. For two things there are which beyond the rest soothe God, humility and faith. The foot therefore expresses the affection of humility and the obedience of sedulous servitude: faith equals the Son to the Father, and confesses the same glory of both. Rightly however not more but two feet are man's: for four feet are beasts' and wild animals', birds' two by two; and therefore man is as it were of the chased-metal kind, who aims at high things with sight, and flutters with a certain oarsmanship of sublime thoughts. And therefore of him is it said: Thy youth shall be renewed as the eagle's, because he is nearer to celestials, and loftier than eagles, who can say: But our conversation is in heaven ». All these things, save few, St. Ambrose.

But that there be had an integral and exact delineation of the principal parts of man, it is pleasing to add from Lugo, lib. De Provid. Numinis. Man has need of bones, that he be sustained: but he could not consist of a single bone, because he would not have been able to bend himself, and use his limbs for various motions and functions. Therefore he is constructed of very many bones, part greater, part lesser, part most minute; of which each has that magnitude, figure, firmness, and connexion which the strength of body, facility of motion, and use of the members required. The bones of the head are eight: of the upper jaw twelve, of the lower one. Teeth thirty-two: the spine consists of thirty-two vertebrae, the ensiform bone of the breast of three bones. The ribs are twenty-four, of which fourteen reach from the spine of the back to the bone of the breast, and are therein fixed for the custody of heart and lungs; ten do not reach, that laxity be left for the stomach and belly. Each finger consists of three bones, the thumb of two.

He adds from Galen that there are in the human body above two hundred bones: and each bone has above 10 ends, to be considered in forming, disposing, connecting them; so that for the bones alone of the human body to be aptly formed more than eighty thousand ends must be reckoned. Muscles to be above six hundred, of which each has ten ends; and consequently in muscles alone six thousand ends to be considered. The same art, he says, exists about all viscera, and absolutely about any part whatever, so that if one consider the ends of structure, their multitude grows into several myriads. Hence he concludes the human body to be formed by a most wise and most potent artificer. Nor was it enough for the human body to consist of bones and muscles, but heat was needed that it might live, and blood whereby it might be fed, and spirit whereby it might move and feel. For it is agreed that without spirit the soul can neither feel nor move its body. For spirit, since it is a most tenuous substance, is as it were a medium between the most subtle soul and the gross body, and the nearest instrument of the soul, by which it effects motion and sense, without which also distribution of aliment cannot occur. Providence therefore fabricated three principal viscera in man, by which these things are accomplished, heart, liver, brain. Heart for the heat of the whole body and vital spirit: liver for blood and natural spirit: brain for animal spirit. The workshop therefore of blood is the liver: for from the liver two huge veins issue, one upward, the other downward, which are then divided into various branches, and each branch again into other lesser ones, and these into others, until at length they end in minutest invisible veinlets... Wonderful is the structure and force of veins: for they consist of direct, oblique, and transverse fibers. Direct, that they attract and suck blood: oblique, that they retain it; transverse, that they transmit it further to muscles and even extremest parts. The same art observed in the ducts of the intestines; they have the power of conserving blood, which poured outside them straightway putrefies and produces diseases, as we see in pleurisy, contusions, and inflammations. To blood is mixed serous humor for easier distribution, which afterwards is either dissipated by heat into breath, or excreted in sweat. Is mixed also a little bile for tenuity, lest it thicken and as it were coagulate: is mixed also spirit, which we call natural, that it open pores and conduct aliment. For there is no particle of body which is not porous. As liver supplies to all parts of body blood whereby they be fed, and natural spirit; so heart heat and vital spirit, whereby native heat be continually cherished and ventilated: to which end from heart issue two arteries, one upward, one downward, which again go into many branches, and these again into other lesser ones, until they terminate in minutest as it were fibers, precisely in the manner of veins. The little branches of arteries reach all muscles and all viscera, that they may infuse to them heat and spirit. Brain supplies animal spirit, which, as blood and natural spirit through veins, and as heat and vital spirit through arteries, so is diffused through nerves. But because from the brain, contained in the head, sufficient nerves could not proceed reaching all viscera and all muscles; the crafting providence of man extended the substance of the brain together with its membranes from the head through the vertebrae of the neck and through the whole spine of the back, so that spinal marrow is nothing else than a certain continuation and prolongation of the brain. Lest however spirits vanish and the animal suddenly die, the brain is wrapped in double membrane, one thinner, which is inner, another harder and sturdier, which is outer and proximate to skull bone. In similar manner is wrapped the spinal marrow. Wonderful is composition of nerves: as the brain entire consists of three, namely marrow and double membrane wherewith it is wrapped: so also each individual nerve arising from it; for the inmost marrow of nerves is similar to brain substance, covered by two tunics: so that nerves seem to be nothing else than production and continuation of that marrow and those membranes of which brain consists. By this reasoning it happens that the brain is in a manner throughout the whole body, and in each particle of body having sense and motion. For primarily located in head, wherein are all organs of senses: from head extended together with its membranes through spine: from spine departs into nerves, which spread diffused through whole body into all muscles. In similar manner heart through arteries, which imitate nature of heart, and liver through veins, which retain its force and character, are diffused through whole body and exist in any least particle: by which wondrous artifice those three principal viscera by which sense, motion, pulsation, and nutrition are accomplished, namely brain, heart, liver, extend through whole body and exist in a manner in each of its parts. I omit other innumerable things which could be said of structure and use of each.

All these things, more briefly but not less elegantly and graphically, depicts holy Clement, lib. 8. Recognitionum. Behold, he says, in the body of man

the work of the Artificer, how bones serve as certain columns whereon flesh may be supported and borne: then how equal measure is kept on either side, that is right and left; that foot fit foot, and hand hand: finger too fingers, that each answer each with total equality: and eye eye, ear ear, which are not only consonant and concordant with themselves, but aptly formed for necessary uses: hands namely that they be commodious for work, and feet for strides: eyes that they serve vision, guarded by the watches of the brows: ears so formed for hearing that like cymbals they render back the repercussed sound of the word received higher, and emit it even to the sense of the heart. Hear what follows, artistic and wondrous. The tongue moreover renders for them, with the teeth, the office of plectrum for speaking: the teeth indeed themselves, some to incise and divide foods and deliver them to the inner ones. The inner ones grind in manner of millstone and crush, that delivered the more opportunely to stomach they be cooked, whence they are called molars. But the nostrils too were made for passage of breath and for rendering and receiving, that by renewal of spirit the natural heat, which is from heart, be able to be kindled or cooled as need requires, by office of lung, which given to adhere to breast, that by its softness it caress and cherish vigor of heart, in which life seems to consist: life I say, not soul. For what shall I say of substance of blood, which like river proceeding from fountain, conveyed first from one bed, then derived through innumerable veins as through channels, irrigates the whole land of human body with vital streams, ministered by operation of liver, which lies on right side for efficacy of digesting foods and changing them into blood? Who of all these recognizes not work of reason, and wisdom of Creator? » —

To be heard also is Alcimus Avitus, bishop of Vienna, lib. 1. Poëmatum, which is on the creation of the world, wherein he graphically represents the fabric of the human body thus:

Thus Almighty from the side handles the bow that was to live, And meditates the viscera in yielding mire. Hence he marks the citadel of the head in lofty crown, Fitting the sevenfold face to senses of reason, Potent in smell, hearing, touch, and taste. Touch alone shall be, which judge through whole body, Shall feel, and scatter its own vigor through limbs. Thus the pliant tongue is fastened to hollow palate, That pressed in chamber by stroke of striking plectrum The measured speech resound in struck air. Then over the extended body the succedant chest Scatters branching palms behind strong arms. Middle succeeds to stomach, which with soft covering Between either side cherishes vitals, the belly. Femur receives the part of divided frame, that gait Alternate move itself with doubled knee. But from other part, which one Founder fashions, Neck submitted begins to descend from its occiput, And to add vast sinews to its framework.

Spine rigid with brain between exchanges of modes Diffuses the double grate from order of ribs. Inner part is fashioned to new uses of life, Vitals prepare natural covering for heart, And mass hanging of congested entrails hides. Added to these is lung to be fed by thin air, Which drawing the breathing-holes of slow breath conceived, May receive returning, return airs which it took, And in turn panting be driven by frequent draught. Right holds fountain of liver to be quickened with blood, Wherewith veins sprinkle closed river through viscera. Rule of spleen allots left part, Whereby hairs and nails, they say, grow again cut. Nor do they smart cut: hence now resumes increase What live and lack sense in use of body. After image of newness perfected lay, And molded mud reached species into every part, Mud is tempered into flesh, and hardened drew Soft marrows into viscera of middle. Blood is inserted into veins, and living color Redness infects mouth: then pallor through whole body Is driven out, and purple paints snowy faces. Thence when whole man consents to live with perfected limbs, And warmed viscera await that they may assume the sole [soul], Expect the soul, which from pure font Creator May draw forth, and send ruling upright airs: Light perpetual breath he pours forth from mouth And inspires into man: which he straightway received Draws in, and learns airs of frequent breathing.

To be heard also is Cicero, lib. 1. De legibus, discoursing thus on the excellent configuration of the human body: But man himself the same nature adorned not only with celerity of mind, but attributed senses also as satellites and messengers, and initiated obscure, not sufficiently lucid apprehensions of many things, as it were certain foundations of science: and gave figure of body apt and suited to human genius. For when she had cast down other animate beings to pasture, man alone she erected, and excited to view of heaven as it were of kinship and pristine home: then she so formed the species of face, as to portray therein manners deeply hidden. For the eyes are exceedingly eloquent, how we are affected in mind: and that which is called countenance, which can exist in no animate being save man, indicates manners: whose force Greeks know, name they utterly lack. » So Cicero.