Scotus Academicus, Tomus quintus: De Creaturarum Corporalium et de Homine

ON THE CAPITAL SINS INDIVIDUALLY.

Lest the reader find anything wanting in this our Work, after having delineated in general the nature of sin, its distribution, and its various appendices, it pleases us here to set forth individually certain matters concerning the capital sins gathered from various little works of the Seraphic Doctor. — The capital sins are seven in number; namely pride, envy, wrath, sloth, avarice, gluttony, and lust. Among which the five preceding are spiritual sins, while the two last are carnal. Now the Seraphic Doctor gathers their number and order thus in the Breviloquium, part 3, chapter 9. Our will, he says, is disordered either because it desires what is not to be desired: or because it shuns what is not to be shunned. If it desires anything that is not to be desired, as being a good for the moment, whether changeable, or an apparent good, this is either within, and so it is private excellence, which pride loves: or without, and so sufficiency, which avarice loves: or within again, and so either delectable, because directed to the conservation of the individual, and thus nourishment, which is delectable according to taste, and is desired by gluttony: or because directed to the conservation of the species, and thus coition, which is delectable according to touch, and is desired by lust. But if the will is disordered because it shuns what is not to be shunned; this can be in three ways, according to the threefold mode of shunning. For it shuns either according to the perverse instinct of the rational power itself, and so it is envy: or according to the instinct of the irascible, and so wrath: or according to the instinct of the concupiscible, and so it is sloth. Whence, since there are four principal desirable things, and three powers according to whose instinct there is flight, therefore there are only seven capital sins. — Somewhat otherwise does he gather the same distribution in the Centiloquium, part 1, chapter 15. The sufficiency, he says, of the seven capital vices is taken according to pronity toward an apparent good: now this pronity, if it is with respect to a good that regards the spirit in itself, can be fourfold, according to the four conditions of the good toward which man's appetite inclines. For one desires a good under the aspect of dignity, and so it is pride: or under the aspect of possession, and so it is envy: or under the aspect of security, and so it is wrath: or under the aspect of rest and tranquillity, and so it is sloth. But if it be pronity with respect to a good that regards the flesh, or the spirit in the flesh, it can then be in three ways. For the carnal spirit desires a good under the aspect of what suffices, and so it is avarice: or under the aspect of what soothes, and so it is lust: or under the aspect of what refreshes, and so it is gluttony: and from this the number and sufficiency of the capital vices is clear. The Seraphic Doctor observes in the same place that those capital vices are ordered among themselves according to that connexion by which one is brought forth from another. For the proud man will not be subject to superiors, wishes to excel his equals, wishes to trample upon his inferiors.

And if he cannot, he will fall upon superiors, because they take precedence: upon equals, because they prosper: upon inferiors, because they are exalted. And since thereby he profits nothing, he easily conceives wrath against greater, middling, and lesser men. Then he falls into sloth, whereby the tranquillity of his mind is disturbed. And then, having lost interior consolation, he turns himself through avarice to exterior consolation; and thus made rich beyond measure he stuffs his belly through gluttony, and finally through lust he dissolves his flesh, depraved from the highest summit of reason even unto the lowest part of the flesh.

Thus it is clear that the five first are spiritual, but the two last are carnal. That however some account may be had of all these capital sins, it pleases us here to draw off somewhat concerning them from the same Seraphic Doctor in the following Paragraphs.

I. — ON PRIDE.

Concerning pride, says the Seraphic Doctor just now praised, three things are to be observed: namely the definition, the differences, and the degrees. Pride is defined thus by Bernard: Pride is the appetite of one's own excellence. Thus by Augustine: Pride is the love of one's own excellence. Likewise by the same: Pride is the appetite of perverse loftiness.

According to St. Gregory, book 23 of the Moralia, chapter 4, they have four differences.

The second is when one boasts not of himself indeed, yet of his own merits. The third is when he boasts that he has what he has not. The fourth is when he thinks himself to prevail over others: whence the verses:

If of himself, for his merits, false, he presses upon all men more.

According to St. Anselm in the book De Similitudinibus, chapter 21, there are four species of exaltation: one is exaltation in opinion, one in will, one in speech, one in deed. Exaltation in opinion is when someone accounts himself worthy of a bishopric, or some dignity, yet would not wish to have it. Exaltation in will is when someone would wish to have a bishopric, yet does not account himself worthy, or even so opines. Exaltation in speech is when he neither accounts himself worthy, nor would wish to have it, yet speaks bombastically about some knowledge, that he may appear the greater. Exaltation in deed is when someone neither accounts himself worthy, nor would wish to have it, nor speaks great things; yet is exalted in deed, as when he is called to councils, and the like.

The degrees of pride, according to Bernard, Treatise On the Steps of Humility, Paragraph 4 and following, are twelve: namely curiosity, levity of mind, foolish mirth, boasting, singularity, arrogance, presumption, defence of sins, feigned confession, rebellion, liberty of sinning, habit. By these as it were certain steps the proud man diligently arrives at the end he intends. Curiosity is when the proud man diligently inquires after rumours, namely what is said of him. Levity of mind is when one lightly passes from delight at words of praise to sadness on account of words of reproach. Foolish mirth is when he rejoices over the defects and crimes of others. Boasting is when he narrates what he has, that he may be praised. Singularity is when, contrary to custom, he does something singularly, that he alone may appear and be praised. Arrogance is when he boasts that he has what he has not. Presumption is when he thrusts himself into doing what does not pertain to him. Defence of sins is when one manifestly and openly defends and excuses his own sin and error. Feigned confession is when he excuses his sin covertly. Rebellion is when he dissents, namely from superiors, equals, and inferiors: he opposes superiors, oppresses inferiors, harasses and disturbs his equals. Then liberty of sinning succeeds, because fearing neither God nor reverencing man, he sins freely, accustomed to evils, falling headlong into the depths of sins.

He adds in the Dieta salutis, title 1, chapter 30, that the evil of pride is above all likened by nine comparisons. It is compared, 1. to wind, on account of three things: because wind extinguishes light, dries up dew, and blows away dust: so pride extinguishes the light of wisdom, dries up the dew of grace, and blows away the dust of worldly vanity; and therefore since man is dust by his condition, according to that saying, Dust thou art, and into dust thou shalt return: the wind of pride is more to be feared on high than below, that is, in the state of prelation than of subjection, because if the wind found dust on high it would blow it away more quickly, since this pertains to the utmost violence of wind, as the Poet says. — Secondly, pride is compared to smoke, because as smoke the more it ascends the more it fails, so the proud man the more he is exalted the more he vanishes, according to that saying: Not as though they had been honoured and exalted did they not fail, wasting away even as smoke they failed. — Thirdly it is compared to chaff, on account of levity, inconstancy, and defect of worth; because as a torrent carries chaff, and those light things, to the ocean: so the torrent of temptation carries with it to the ocean of hell the vain, not the humble. — Fourthly it is compared to a drop of water, which puffs up and is straightway annihilated: and to resin, which soon fails, yet only when pricked with a needle: so the proud man soon fails by puffing himself up, and is annihilated when pricked by a slight fever or tribulation. — Fifthly it is compared to a spider, because as the Spider disembowels herself by weaving her web, that she may catch flies, so the proud man loses his soul, that he may catch human praise. Whence it is said: They have woven the webs of the spider. — Sixthly it is compared to a bier, because as a bier is then only adorned when the dead man is laid upon it: so men, and women especially, then adorn the bier of their body by the provision of outward garments, when the soul within is dead through pride. — Seventhly the proud man is compared to a heedless wrestler. For if in the struggle one of the wrestlers can lift the foot of the other, he casts him down: so if the devil can lift the foot, that is, the affection of man, through pride, he casts him down into everlasting damnation. Whence it is said: Thou hast cast them down while they were lifted up. — Eighthly it is compared to a hen, because as the hen crows at once when she has laid her egg, so the proud man at once wishes to be seen when he has done any good work. — Ninthly it is compared to a wolf. For it is said that the wolf lives one month upon wind: so the proud man lives for one month, that is, the measure of his life, or feeds upon the wind of worldly glory, according to that saying: Ephraim feedeth on wind, that is, worldly glory; heat hath shut him in all the day long, that is, the proud man is always famished for human praise.

But the damages which pride works in man are specially five. First it makes him dry, that he may be kindled the better, that is, it renders him without the moisture of grace, and without compassion. Whence it is said: Lift not up thyself in the thought of thy soul: and there follows: And be thou not forsaken like a dry tree in the desert, that is, in hell, where unfruitful trees shall be burned, that is, sinners. Secondly, it consumes man, that is, it annihilates and destroys every good of man, according to that saying: It consumeth the arms of him, that is, of the proud man; the firstborn death, that is, pride, which is the firstborn daughter of sin, or of the devil. Thirdly, it infatuates and deceives men; the sign of which is, that the proud man despises precious things, that is, grace and glory, and dearly buys vile things, that is, transitory glory, according to that saying: The arrogancy and pride of thy heart hath deceived thee. Fourthly, it precipitates man: and therefore it lifts man to the heights, that his fall may be greater and graver, of which it is said: He that exalteth himself shall be humbled. Fifthly, it makes man wholly unhappy. For the proud man thenceforth is unhappy, because from good seed he gathers an evil harvest: for the things that are good for others he turns into evil. For he falls sick out of health, dies out of life, is wounded by medicine, is conquered by the conquered, is overcome and slain by the dead. All these things befall the proud man, because he glories in his gift, and thus from good he becomes evil, and from virtue becomes vicious; according to that saying: Contrition and unhappiness are in their ways, that is, of the proud.

In the Compendium Theologicum, book 3, chapter 22, the same Seraphic Doctor admonishes that it must be noted that vain glory is sometimes mortal sin; sometimes venial. Vain glory, he says, of its genus is venial sin, because the genus of an act is taken from the object. But of itself alone it is not the object of mortal, but of venial sin. Whence since vain praise is the object of this sin, it is clear that it is not always mortal sin. Nevertheless vain glory will be mortal, namely by reason of the end for which praise is desired. For such a work is such as is that for which it is desired. Likewise by reason of the work in which praise is sought. Concerning the first it must be said that praise is desired for a fourfold end. 1. to avoid the evil of infamy, as Samuel praised himself. 2. on account of some spiritual utility, as the glory of God, or the edification of neighbour, as Paul commended himself. 3. on account of the gain of avarice, as the Pharisees who devoured the houses of widows, making long prayers. 4. on account of some act of venial sin, as when someone wishes to be praised because he venially delights in praise. The first is of prudence: the second of charity: the third is mortal sin; and the same must be understood whenever mortal sin is set forth as the end of any work: otherwise it is venial. — There follows the second cause why vain glory is mortal sin; namely by reason of the work through which praise is sought. Now this can be done in three ways; because praise is sometimes sought through illicit works, sometimes through works indifferent of themselves, sometimes through works of virtue. If in the first way, then such a sin is such as that illicit thing itself, namely mortal or venial. If in the second way, it is venial sin, as to have riches, or precious furnishings, with abuse of such things unto praise. Yet if such things are of themselves ordained so as to be an occasion of mortal sin, as when a woman with meretricious adornment prepares herself to catch souls; or if that act is illicit by prohibition of a superior, as tourneys and the like, which violate the commandment of the Church, then they are mortal sins. If in the third way, that is, if praise is sought through works of virtue, this is twofold: either because the appetite for praise is joined to the work of virtue as incident, as happens sometimes in singing or in preaching, and then it is venial: or praise is the end principally appointed to the work of virtue and to the worker, so that therein he sets his last end; and thus it is mortal: because then he cleaves to it as to his last end. Note that it is a greater sin to glory in spiritual goods than in temporal ones; because these have less motive, inasmuch as they appear less outwardly than temporal goods.

§ II. — ON ENVY.

From the Centiloquium: Envy is sometimes called by the name of wrath, as it is said in Genesis: Why art thou angry? The Gloss: Thou art tortured with envy. Sometimes by the name of hatred, as we have in the same place: His brothers hated him, that is, mocked him; sometimes by the name of emulation, as is evident from the first book of Kings: His emulation afflicted him etc. Yet emulation has four significations comprehended in this verse: The emulous man is inflamed, loves, mocks, and is provoked. Sometimes by its proper name; and thus Damascene says that there are four species of sadness, namely Lupe, which is a heavy sadness: Anches, which is a sadness taking away the voice: Misericordia, which is sadness over another's evil: Invidia, which is sadness over another's good.

Now envy is defined thus by Augustine: Envy is hatred of another's felicity. By Remigius thus: Envy is grief over another's good. By Damascene: Envy is sadness over the goods of another. By the Philosopher: Envy is sadness at the apparent felicity of anyone. Likewise otherwise: Envy is dissension from another's good, judged to diminish one's own.

The differences of Envy materially assigned, according to Augustine, are three, namely to envy superiors, equals, and lesser men or inferiors. For man envies superiors, because he is not their equal: equals, because they prosper for the better: inferiors, lest they be made his equal. — Now the fear of the Lord is opposed to pride, by reason of the humility it begets: and piety to envy, by reason of the charity from which it is begotten: for piety, which availeth for all things, is the first and chiefest daughter of charity. — The daughters of envy according to Blessed Gregory are five, namely hatred, whispering, detraction, exultation in the adversities of one's neighbour, affliction at his prosperities. Hatred is a will affecting evil for one's neighbour, that he may lack the good that grieves him. Whispering is a will of speaking sowing discords among brethren, that one may persecute his neighbour on account of that good of his which grieves him. Detraction is a will darkening the fame of one's neighbours by words, that it may destroy in the opinion of others the good that grieves it. Exultation in the adversities of neighbours is a will procured in the adversity of one's neighbour, delighting. Affliction at the goods of one's neighbour is a will procuring evil according to its desire, defrauded by the contrary event of prosperity.

Envy of its genus is mortal sin; for he who envies, according to Remigius, so grieves over another's good that he directly contravenes charity, which envieth not, but rejoiceth with the truth. But nothing is contrary to charity except mortal sin. Yet that which of its genus is mortal can be venial, either as it consists in the first motion, or as it is drawn outside its proper character. Now grief over another's good is fourfold. Either it is first the first motion coming from nature, as some are naturally envious: and this is no sin at all, since it is in no way in our power. Or it is secondly the first motion, when namely the appetite, without complete deliberation, is affected by such a passion; and thus it is venial sin: Or it is a voluntary act of deliberate choice, and thus it is mortal sin. Or it is drawn by intention outside its proper character, as when grief over another's good arises in anyone from a good cause, as when one grieves over another's temporal good because he sees it redound to the detriment of that man's soul, or even to the detriment of the community: such grief is good, because the greater good is the more to be desired. Note however that by grief over good is also comprehended joy over evil, which is caused by it.

From the Dieta salutis, title 1, chapter 4: Envy has many odious similitudes; for it is as a worm in wood, rust in iron, a tetter in a garment. For as these betray their proper subject, and consume it more than other things, so envy gnaws the envious man, and the envious man harms himself more than others. — 2. It is as a dragon; because as the dragon lies in wait for the elephant in travail, that he may sting and bite and devour him: so the envious man lies in wait for another man's judgment with perverse suspicion, and afterwards bites or stings with the sting of murmuring, and infects with the poison of detraction: whence it is said of the envious man: I was a brother to dragons, and a companion to ostriches. — 3. He is like the leper, Judas the traitor, and the devil. For the leper would wish that no one were sound, and the devil that no one were good. Whence it is said: By the envy of the devil, death came into the world. Judas was grieved at the pouring out of the ointment upon Christ, as we read in Matthew. So the envious man, after the manner of the leper and the devil, grieves over his neighbour's good, and even after the manner of Judas the traitor is saddened at the good fame of a brother, and at the hatred of virtue. Whence the Lord would do the envious man a great injury if He placed him in Paradise; for he would die of grief, where he saw others rejoice. — 4. The envious man is like the eye of a menstruous woman. For as she infects the mirror when she looks upon it; so the envious man infects his neighbour when he looks upon his good, since with all his striving he labours to set some stain upon his neighbour. Whence it is said: The insidious man turneth good into evil, and setteth a stain upon the elect. — 5. The envious man is like the night owl, and like Greek fire. For the owl sees by night, and by day is blinded; and Greek fire burns, or is kindled, the more fiercely in water: so envy blazes the more fiercely in the waters of graces, whence it ought to be extinguished, and after the manner of the owl is blinded by the light, whence it ought to be illumined, like Heli, who could not see the lamp until it was extinguished, as is said in the book of Kings. — 6. The envious man is like water, and a ship, and a serpentine candle. For in water, a straight rod appears crooked: and to those in a ship, when they themselves descend tortuously, it seems that the mountains run swiftly: and by the light of a serpentine candle, all straws seem to be serpents. Now a serpentine candle is made of wax tempered in water in which a serpent has been boiled; and when that candle made of such wax burns, it seems to men that all the straws and all the other candles burning there are serpents: so the envious man, after the manner of water, makes straight things crooked; and like those in a ship; because when the envious themselves descend inwardly, it seems to them that the mountains, that is, holy and steadfast men, run toward damnation: and by the light of serpentine things, namely of envy, they judge the innocent and good to be serpent-like: for they turn all things into evil, as is said in Ecclesiasticus: The insidious man turneth good into evil. — 7. The envious man is compared to Cain, of whom it is said: Whosoever findeth me shall kill me: so every man slays the envious; for either he sees good in a man, and then grieves, or evil, and so rejoices, and thus in every man he sins, or dies through sin. — 8. The envious man is compared to the Acrisia of the Sodomites, that is, to the blindness wherewith the Lord struck the Sodomites, as is said in Genesis. Now Acrisia is a passion which removes judgment: and it is named from the privative, which is sine, and crisi, which is judgment: because the envious man does not judge those things which he ought to see and judge. — 9. The envious man is like nothing, for the reason that he is unlike both the Creator and every creature, or created man: for the Creator communicates His goods liberally, and the creature likewise. For we see that the sun communicates its light to all creatures, and fire its heat, and so of the rest: but the envious man not only does not communicate his gifts, but even, as far as in him lies, annihilates the goods of others, because they displease him exceedingly; and even if he alone were envious, he would wish nothing, that nothing but envy might be.

The damages of Envy are specially five. The first is, that it shuts the way of salvation and the entrance to Paradise; for it is blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, which is not forgiven in this world, neither in the world to come, as is said in Matthew: now there are six sins against the Holy Ghost, of which envy is one, namely envy of a brother's grace, impugning of truth acknowledged, presumption of impunity, obstinacy of mind, despair, and final impenitence. For they are called sins against the Holy Ghost, namely because they impugn the grace of the Holy Ghost. The second is, that it fills man with all evil. Whence as a cask full of wine, which in the common speech is said to be full up to the eye: so the envious man, whose sign it is that the malice of the envious man goes forth through the eye. For it is said in Ecclesiasticus: The eye of the envious man is wicked. And in Matthew: Is thy eye wicked, because I am good? The third is, that it strips man of every good; and the cause is, that it hates and impugns every good. For the other vices are opposed to one virtue, as pride to humility, lust to chastity, avarice to liberality, and so of the others: but envy, as has been said, is opposed to every good, whence it is called not merely evil, but worst of all. For this is the worst beast, which devoured Joseph, as is said in Genesis. The fourth is, that it makes man wholly merciless, as appears in Cain, who through envy spared not Abel his innocent brother: as appeared also in the sons of Jacob, who, envy goading them, spared not innocent Joseph: as appeared also in the Jews, who spared not Christ most innocent, nay the Lord of innocence, whose cause was envy, as appears in Matthew, because Pilate knew that through envy they had delivered Him. The fifth is, that it makes man wholly unhappy; for the envious man is cast down by the goods of others, is made worse by their betterment, fails at their progress, withers at their fatness, falls sick at their health, dies at their life, and thinks himself to be losing what others gain. And as all things work together for good to them that love God, so to the envious man all things work together for evil. Whence someone most beautifully describing Envy says:

Paleness sitteth on the face, wasting upon all the body. Nowhere a sound glance; with rust are green the teeth; The breast grows green with gall; the tongue is bathed in venom. Laughter is absent, save what seen griefs have stirred. Nor enjoys he sleep; roused with waking cares, He sees the thankless, and wastes away with gazing Upon the man's success, and gnaws, and with him is gnawed at once. And his own torment it is.

§ III. — ON WRATH.

From the Compendium Theologicum, chapter 17. Wrath, as Augustine says, is the lust of avenging; and according to Cassian, Wrath is a movement of the soul stirred up to punishment. This is the definition of wrath as a vice, not as zeal, of which we must here treat. Wrath therefore has a twofold being, namely the being of nature and the being of morals. Insofar therefore as it is disordered from the best, it has moral being, wherein it is a vice; because wrath is not a sin by reason of the mere passion, nay rather it is a punishment: but with this it denotes a certain action by which it disorders man both with respect to God and with respect to his neighbour; for he wishes to seek vengeance, which he ought not to seek except from God, or from a judge constituted under God.

But whether one is bound to remit an injury to an enemy asking it; note the distinction: because from an injury three things are wont to arise: First, rancour in the affections. Second, the sign of rancour in effect. Third, action against the injurer. The first one is bound to remit at once, even if not asked. The second one is bound to remit to one truly asking pardon, that is, prepared to make amends according to his ability. The third one is not bound to remit. But if you wish to know whether he to whom the injury was done ought to seek friendship: it must be known that the debt is twofold: The first is of necessity, without which there is no salvation. The second is of perfection. As to the first debt, one is not bound to seek reconciliation or friendship. But concerning the second Chrysostom says that he ought to seek reconciliation, that he may obtain a double crown: one, because he suffered the injury: the other, because he asked first. Now the Lord sets forth three degrees concerning the guilt of wrath, when He says: Whosoever is angry with his brother shall be in danger of the judgment; and whosoever shall say to his brother, Racca, shall be in danger of the council; and whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire. Concerning these it must be said, that where the degree of guilt grew, there the order of punishment also grew. Whence rightly is wrath without voice to be punished with judgment: wrath with voice with the council: wrath with voice of contumely is delivered over to the fires of hell: for according to Augustine in the first there is wrath only; in the second wrath and speech; in the third there is wrath and a certain expression of derision. Gregory moreover says, that judgment is the discussion of a cause; the council the definition of a sentence; hell fire the execution of the sentence. — Note that to render evil for evil is of frailty, as Joab did when he killed Abner, namely the slayer of his brother Azahel. But to render evil for good is of perversity, as Judas did in betraying Christ. To render good for good is of equity, as Assuerus did when he honoured Mardochaeus. To render good for evil is of perfection, as Blessed Stephen did when he prayed for his enemies.

The daughters of wrath according to Gregory are six: The first is strife: this is a bold will of avenging an injury done, of oneself. The second is swelling of mind: this is a will of avenging which flees the adversary, lest conversation be had with him on account of the enmities reckoned up. The third is contumely, which is a will avenging itself by the upbraiding of evils. The fourth is clamour, which is a will avenging itself by raising the voice in reproachful vituperation, coming to the ears of others. The fifth is indignation, which is a will avenging itself by a sign of molestation declared outwardly. The sixth is blasphemy, which is a will avenging itself by the reproach cast upon God or the Saints.

From wrath come many evils. It disturbs the dwelling of the Holy Ghost, Greg. While wrath beats upon the soul, the Holy Ghost disturbs His dwelling. For as in peace is made the place of God, so in discord the place of thy name. Whence such men are like the Dragon, who sends forth fire from his mouth; he usurps to himself what is God's, namely vengeance. The Prophet: Vengeance is mine, and I will repay. Such a man makes himself judge, and wishes to be God the tormentor, as St. Augustine says: For the evil man says in his prayers: Lord, kill my wicked enemy. The Lord answers him: Which of you? you are both wicked. Nay, such a man wishes to be both actor and judge in the same cause; but he shows himself a fool, who thrusts the sword through his own heart, that he may wound his enemy's tunic. Nay, if he acted wisely, he ought first to avenge himself upon that very thing, namely upon wrath, taking up zeal against his own wrath on account of the vice: but on the contrary he turns the file of purgation into the rust of depravity. For adversities, which ought to purge him from sin, the more stain him through impatience, and the furnace of trial changes his gold into copper, and the scourge makes of his grain chaff. Thence such a man shall await a hard sentence in the judgment. For when the Lord is about to upbraid certain ones: I was naked, and you covered me not, what shall be said to those who not only clothe not the naked, but despoil the clothed? They renew against themselves the war of the world, the flesh, and the devil; but the wise allay the lesser wars because of the greater which impend: these make an evil exchange, because taking away the cloak of good fame, they give the tunic of innocence.

The remedies of wrath are the observance of silence. When the tongue fails, the fire is extinguished: because as fire is struck out from the collision of two bodies, so wrath is stirred up from the bitter words of some: A soft answer breaketh wrath, and a harsh word stirreth up fury, as he that taketh flesh with the ears, etc. Consideration of the Lord's Passion. St. Greg. If the Passion of the Lord be recalled to memory, nothing is so hard that it is not borne with equanimity. This was figured, where they that look upon the brazen serpent shall be healed. Likewise the consideration of the reward of toleration: whence consideration of the reward lessens the force of the scourge.

From the Centiloquium, lecture 20. The species or differences of wrath are three, according to St. Damascene, namely fel, mania, cotus. Fel, or the bilious passion, is said to be a sudden movement of the soul, impatient of injury; and it happens on the part of the body from the commotion of the bile; and on the part of the soul from corruption of the irascible power: and then the bile is moved to vengeance, that sadness may be expelled: of which St. August. says, Wrath is a commotion of passion inflicted. This wrath quickly passes away. Mania is said to be wrath abiding and committed to memory. Cotus is wrath that watches the time for vengeance.

From the Dieta salutis, chapter 6. Wrath has many adaptations and figures, among which, First, it is compared to fire; for as fire kindles a wooden house and every dry material; so wrath kindles especially the dry, that is, irascible men, who lack the moisture of grace. Whence the irascible man is like a man having a wooden house, who in the morning is rich, and in the evening has nothing: because the fire of wrath has burned up his house, that is, his conscience, and in consequence has taken from him whatever he had. — Secondly, the irascible man is like a boiling pot: for as a pot by boiling sends forth water and all else: so the irascible man by boiling over with wrath sends forth folly and disordered words, according to that saying: The mouth of fools bubbleth out folly. — Thirdly, the irascible man is like the boar, for as the boar from fury dashes and runs against the sword; so the irascible man runs to sin, namely contention, injury, and homicide. Of such it is said: Their feet run to evil: and St. Greg. in the Pastoral: Fury drives on a mind which desire draws not, and it works mischiefs as though unaware, which afterwards it grieves over knowingly. — Fourthly, the irascible man is like a madman, or one possessed, who casts himself into fire or water: so the irascible man casts himself into any wickedness whatsoever. Whence it is said of that possessed man, that wheresoever he seizes him, he dashes him down: so wrath dashes down the irascible man, molesting through impatience, and foams through clamours, contending or contemning; but gnashes with the teeth, plotting malice: and it blazes, conceiving hatred and rancour. For these are the signs of wrath, and the works of wrathfulness. Fifthly, the irascible man is like a flint emitting fire: for as flint struck by a hammer emits a spark, so the irascible man, touched by a word, shows forth his impatience: and as flint does not emit fire unless it be touched by something hard, so many are reputed patient who nevertheless blaze forth into wrath when touched by some contumelious word. For it is said that a stone dissolved by heat is turned into brass: the stone is a hard and stony soul, which when it is dissolved by the heat of wrathfulness, straightway after the manner of brass gives forth the sound of indignation and contumely. — Sixthly, the irascible man is like the rhamnus. For the rhamnus is a certain most thorny shrub, having thorns so hard that at the onset of the wind it emits sparks, as Josephus says: so the wrathful man, on account of the wind of indignation, emits the sparks of most thorny contention: whence it is said: Let fire go forth out of the rhamnus, and devour the cedars of Libanus, that is, the proud and powerful of this world, because they have been accustomed especially to be wrathful. — Seventhly, the irascible man is like an empty vessel placed near the fire. For we see that if an empty earthen vessel is set to the fire, it is broken; but if it be full of water, it is in no wise harmed: so man, who is of his condition earthen, if he is set to the fire of adversity or tribulation, is straightway broken through impatience if he is empty of grace; but if he be full of grace, he is not harmed; and therefore it is said: The furnace proveth the potter's vessel, and the temptation of tribulation the just men.

The damages of anger are specially five. First, it blinds the eye of reason: for it is said: My eye is troubled with fury, that is, of reason; and consequently the angry man cannot see what is just or unjust: whence it is said: For the anger of a man worketh not the justice of God; and Seneca says that two things hinder counsel, namely haste and anger. Secondly, anger makes a man prone to any sin whatsoever: for it is commonly said of a man greatly angered or inflamed that he would do anything; and therefore it is said: He who is quick to be indignant will be the more prone to sin. Thirdly, it makes a man foolish, and as it were mad: hence at the time when a man is angry, reason and humanity perish in him, and thus consequently man is changed and becomes a beast; for man is by nature a gentle animal, as the Philosopher says. Of the folly of the wrathful man it is said: Anger slayeth a foolish man. Fourthly, it takes from a man himself, as it is commonly said that a troubled or angry man is not in himself. But he is sufficiently harmed who loses himself. Of such damage it is said: He who is impatient shall suffer loss, namely of his very self; so on the contrary patience preserves a man to himself: for it is said: In your patience you shall possess your souls. Fifthly, it takes from a man all mercy and compassion; therefore it is said: Anger hath no mercy, nor fury when it breaketh forth. Whence an angry man must be fled from like a mad dog and an enraged lion.

Ex Compendio Theologico cap. 21. Anger according to its genus is mortal sin, because according to St. Isidore, anger is an agitated spirit bent upon inflicting punishment on one who presses forward. Such a motion is contrary to charity, which is not provoked, nor thinketh evil. Anger, then, either signifies the anger of zeal, which is detestation of vice, and this is not sin but belongs to perfection. Or a man may be angry with himself after this manner, as the gloss says upon that verse of the Psalm: Be ye angry, and sin not: "What is a penitent man," it says, "but one who is angry?" Or it signifies a remission of affection toward one's neighbor, whereby a man does not grieve over his neighbor's evil, nor rejoice in his good — though he neither grieves over his good, nor rejoices over his evil, but is indifferent toward him; and so it is not mortal, but an imperfection of charity: or it signifies actual impatience without appetite for vengeance; and such a motion, even if deliberate, is venial sin, because it has an incomplete character of anger, as is clear from the definition given above. Or it signifies impatience with appetite for vengeance, and this in three ways; for sometimes this comes from nature, as in melancholics, in whom, according to the Philosopher, nature is continually gnawed, wherefore they are always turbulent: and so it is no sin, being a natural motion: sometimes it comes from an undeliberate appetite, and so is venial, like other first movements: sometimes it comes from a deliberative will, and then it is mortal sin.

§ IV. — OF ACEDIA.

Ex Centiloquio, Sect. 21. There follows to be considered concerning Acedia under three heads, namely as to its definition, its opposition, and its daughters. It is defined thus by St. Augustine: Acedia is weariness of the eternal good. By Richard: Acedia is a torpor of soul, negligent in beginning good. By St. Damascene: Acedia is a sorrow that weighs down. By the Masters: Acedia is diffidence about one's own powers, and about the help of God, for fulfilling arduous things or commandments. Now Acedia, insofar as it is diffidence about fulfilling the precepts, is opposed to the virtue of hope, whose office it is to trust. Insofar as it is weariness of the interior good, wherein pusillanimity is begotten, it is opposed to the virtue of fortitude. Insofar as it accounts difficult what is easy, it is opposed to the virtue of charity, whereby all things, even difficult ones, are made easy to be accounted easy. And as to its essence, which is sadness, it is opposed to spiritual joy.

Acedia, according to St. Gregory, book 31 of the Moralia, cap. 45, has six daughters, namely malice, rancor, pusillanimity, despair, torpor, and wandering of the mind about unlawful things. Malice is a will impatient of heaviness, machinating evil against him whom it judges to be perishing. Rancor is a will embittered by impotence under heaviness, manifesting outwardly by sign the bitterness shut up within. Pusillanimity is a will immoderately fearing heaviness in the undertaking of works, or immoderately distrusting its own powers. Despair is a will repressing heaviness, distrusting the help for perfecting works to be done, or distrusting the divine reward on account of the endurance of the heaviness which lies in fulfilling the precepts. Torpor is a will impatient of heaviness, tepid or slothful toward the completing of works begun. Wandering of the mind about unlawful things is a will destitute of interior joy, seeking rest or consolation in exterior things that are unlawful. — According to St. Isidore, book on Deuteronomy, cap. 16, some daughters belong to sadness and others to acedia: for he calls sadness taedium (weariness), insofar as one turns oneself away from a heavy duty; but acedia he calls fastidium (disgust), insofar as one turns oneself to undue repose. He says, therefore: from sadness issue rancor, pusillanimity, bitterness, despair. From acedia, according to him, arise idleness, somnolence, importunity, disquietude of mind, instability of body, talkativeness, curiosity.

Ex Dietae salutis cap. 7. Acedia has many figures and similitudes to be detested. First, it is compared to willows, which are unfruitful trees and only make shade: so the slothful and idle bear no fruit, but only shade to the devil and refreshment: whence of the devil it is said in Job: unfruitful willows surround him, that is, the devil. Secondly, acedia is compared to a hectic fever, or phthisical, or relapsing fever, or palsy. The hectic, or phthisical fever arises from consumption of the natural humor: so acedia arises because the humor of divine love and devotion fails: likewise it is compared to a relapsing fever; for a fever of this kind is scarcely or never cured; so the slothful or idle man, being half-dead, is scarcely corrected. It is also that languor of which it is said in Ecclesiasticus: a languor more prolonged burdeneth the physician. It is compared also to palsy, which makes the members dry and powerless: so acedia makes the feet impotent for walking, the hand for working, and all the members for sustaining the labor of penance. Whence of such it is said in the Psalm: They have hands, but they shall not feel: they have feet, but they shall not walk. Thirdly, it is compared to Adoni-bezech, of whom it is said that he cut off the hands and feet of seventy kings. Adoni-bezech is interpreted lord of want, and signifies acedia, which makes its subjects needy and poor: for it is said in Proverbs: Slackness, that is, sloth, worketh want. This Adoni-bezech cuts off the hands and feet of kings; because literally Kings and Prelates wish to live in idleness; or kings are called religious men, according to that of Ecclesiasticus, c. 47: who anointest kings unto penitents. Religious men indeed ought both to be, and to rule others, by life and doctrine; but some have hands and feet cut off through acedia. Fourthly, the idle man is compared to a hungry dog; for such a slothful and idle man hungers after the manner of a dog, and all his senses suffer universal hunger, according to that Ps. 58: They suffer hunger like dogs: for his mouth hungers for delicate foods, his tongue for vain words, his hands for vile things, his heart for honors, his ear for rumors, and his eyes for vanities; therefore it is said in Proverbs: Desires kill the slothful man. Fifthly, the idle or slothful man is compared to iron, earth, water, a garment, a negligent scholar, a man standing still and not walking; for by one and the same reasoning these six are adapted: iron indeed that is not handled soon rusts; earth that is not tilled brings forth bad herbs; water that is not moved soon corrupts; a garment that is not worn is easily eaten of the moth; the negligent scholar who does not learn of necessity knows nothing; a man standing still who does not go falls more easily than he who is always walking. So the sluggish man, because he does not exercise himself in any good work, succumbs to vices and is conquered by temptation: whence St. Jerome says to Rusticus the Monk: Do always some good thing, that the devil find thee not idle. For the devil more easily seizes those whom he does not find occupied in good work; for the unclean spirit, when he finds the house empty, namely through acedia, takes with him seven other spirits more wicked than himself, that is, all vices, and entering in they dwell there, as is said in Matthew. Sixthly, the idle and slothful man is compared to one in a lethargy, who dies sleeping, as Sisara, of whom it is said that joining sleep to death he fainted away and died; and as it is commonly said that he sleeps too heavily and profoundly who allows the pillow to be stolen from beneath him: so the slothful man is too much oppressed by the sleep of acedia, who allows the pillow, that is, the quiet of a good conscience, to be stolen from him.

The damages of Acedia are specially seven: The first is poverty, which makes a man needy both corporally and spiritually: so it is said in Proverbs: Slackness worketh want. And in Matthew it is said of the slothful servant: Take away from him the talent: for he truly deserves to lose the talent of grace who neglects to multiply it. The second is vileness, for acedia makes a man vile: whence it is said in Ecclesiasticus: Upon a filthy stone shall the slothful man be stoned; the filthy stone may be called unclean sin, to which acedia makes a man prone. The third is fear, or pusillanimity, which makes a man timid and pusillanimous after the manner of a hare; whence it is said in Proverbs: Fear casteth down the slothful, namely from the height of virtue. The fourth is spiritual corruption; he is corrupted also in the likeness of unmoved water; whence Jeremiah says: Moab hath not been poured from vessel to vessel. Moab is interpreted the sluggish man, who has not been poured from vessel to vessel, because he is not occupied in good works. The fifth is accumulation of vices, for acedia fills a man with all vices; for it is said in Proverbs: I passed by the field of the slothful man, and behold, nettles had filled it all. The nettle rightly figures acedia; for the nettle has a soft leaf, but on the leaf a pricking sting: so acedia, after the manner of a nettle, in the softness of remission has the sting of piercing temptation. As the ass willingly feeds on such prickly things, namely thistles, so the slothful man willingly feeds on such prickly things, namely perverse delights, as it were stinged. The sixth is reproachable accusation, for acedia makes a man worthy of reproach; whence it is said in Proverbs: How long wilt thou sleep, O slothful? and therefore to the confusion of his negligence the idle man is sent into the school of the ant to learn, according to that which is written in Proverbs: Go to the ant, O sluggard; and it is great confusion enough for a man that he must learn from so small and despised a master.

Ex Compendio Theologico cap. 25. Acedia according to its genus is venial sin: because according to St. Augustine acedia is weariness of the interior good: but this is not opposed to charity; rather it signifies a diminution of the fervor of charity, wherein every venial sin consists: therefore this weariness either is a natural motion, and so is no sin at all: or it is a motion of the appetite saddened over laborious spiritual work, and so is venial; even though that natural appetite be deliberative, since consent in venial matter is only venial; but acedia according to its genus and of itself is venial: or this weariness overflows into omission of those things that are necessary to salvation, as breaking the precept of God or of the Church without reasonable cause, and then it is mortal: but if that weariness, from omission of good and difficulty of undertaking good, leads into despair, then it already approaches the sin against the Holy Ghost: and if that weariness grows, which also leads into weariness of life, to the point that a man lays hands upon himself,

§ V. — OF AVARICE.

Ex Dietae salutis cap. 6. Avarice is the immoderate love of acquiring or retaining money; concerning which note specially three things: namely its ridiculous type, its dangerous loss, and its pernicious offspring.

Avarice has many comparisons. First it is compared to the sea, death, and hell; for as the sea never overflows, as is said in Ecclesiastes, so the avaricious man never pours back a needful alms, nor makes satisfaction: though after the manner of the sea he drinks in all the rivers of the world, that is, absorbs all riches through cupidity: whence by reason of this insatiability he is compared to the sea: and in the same way to death, or hell, because the latter is never sated with killing, and the former with swallowing down: whence of the avaricious it is said: He hath enlarged as hell his soul, and he himself as death, and he shall not be filled. — Secondly, the avaricious man is like the mole, in four ways. For after the manner of the mole the avaricious man is slow through wickedness; blind through ignorance; as many possessions as he has, so many tombs has he, in which he buries himself through continual solicitude; whatever he digs, he places above himself, because he makes a god of everything. — Thirdly, it is compared to a dunghill, because as a gathered dunghill corrupts and stinks, while scattered it makes fields fruitful; so the riches of the avaricious, so long as they are gathered together, corrupt the soul; but scattered among the poor they nourish them and redeem the sins of the rich, according to that: Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of iniquity: of this dunghill it is said: Their work shall be into a dunghill. — Fourthly, the avaricious man is like the mill-wheel; however often and whenever it turns, it is nevertheless always found in the same place: so the avaricious man, who came naked into the world, however much he labors, departs naked from the world: whence it is said: Naked I came out of my mother's womb, and naked I shall return thither. — Fifthly, the avaricious man is like the swine; for the pig is worth nothing while it lives, but when it dies it begins to be worth something: so the avaricious man is worth nothing in life, because living he will not make restitution, nor give alms: but dying he sometimes begins to be liberal with what he cannot carry with him; for the devils have his soul, worms his body, friends his riches, because the riches desert him, not he the riches. As a dog following two men shows at the parting of the roads which is his master, because then he follows his own proper master and leaves the stranger, so riches at the head of death follow the world and leave the avaricious man; for the Apostle says: We brought nothing into this world, and there is no doubt that we can carry nothing out. — Sixthly, the avaricious man is like a perforated casket above, which receives money that it can never give back unless broken open: so the avaricious man, and especially the usurer, draws in and gathers moneys and riches; but never unless felled by death does he take care to restore them. Therefore of the avaricious it is said: He shall be diminished, as a vessel of the potter is broken, with most grievous ruin. — Seventhly, the avaricious man is like the trunk of a tree; for as the lord who has a trunk in his garden can graft onto it a branch of whatever kind he wishes: so when the devil can graft avarice or cupidity into the heart of a man, he grafts in all vices: because he then has the root and principle of all evils, according to that of the Apostle: The desire of money is the root of all evils. — Eighthly, the avaricious man is like the hen, for the hen is naturally deaf in August, or summer: so the avaricious man in summer, that is, in the state of merit, or in the time of grace, when he ought to gather in the harvest of good works, is deaf after the manner of the hen, because he will not hear the preachers. Whence to the avaricious man it is said in the person of the Lord: callari et remittis, etc. [thou art called, and thou lettest go]. — Ninthly, the avaricious man is like an aposteme situated near the heart, and like a thing placed immediately upon the pupil of the eye. For an aposteme is dangerous then when it is near the heart: so riches are deadly when they are loved with too great love; whence it is said in the Psalm: If riches abound, set not your heart upon them. By the same reasoning also he is compared to a thing placed immediately upon the pupil of the eye. For nothing can ever be well seen which is too near the eye; therefore the avaricious man sees riches badly, because he places the eye of the mind too near them, and loves them too much; therefore the same Psalm says: Their eyes have been set to decline upon the earth.

The damages of avarice are principally nine. First, it makes a man naked, whence it is said in the Apocalypse: Thou sayest that thou art rich and enriched and hast need of nothing; and knowest not that thou art wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked. Note here five misfortunes of the avaricious man; he is wretched (miser), because he acquires riches with labor: miserable, because he guards them with fear: poor, because he loses them with grief: blind, because he regards nothing else: and naked, because he performs no other good. Secondly, avarice makes a man a slave; for riches are not of the avaricious, but the avaricious are of their riches; therefore the Prophet says significantly in the Psalm: The men of riches, not the riches of men. Thirdly, avarice makes a man foolish; for the fool does not guard against danger even when it is near: so the avaricious man flees not the peril of eternity, though he be also near to death. Whence it is said to the avaricious man, Luke 12: Fool, this night do they require thy soul of thee, namely the demons; and these things which thou hast provided, that is, gathered, whose shall they be? for the wicked heapeth up riches, and knoweth not for whom he shall gather them. Fourthly, avarice makes a man abominable; whence it is said in Osee: They have become abominable as those things which they loved. For it is no wonder if God holds the avaricious man in abomination, since he holds God Himself in such contempt; because he loves a coin or an obolus more than God; of which the sign is, that sometimes for an obolus he is not ashamed to lie, nor will he give an obolus to the poor for the love of God. Fifthly, it makes him insatiable: whence the avaricious man is compared to a dropsical man, who drinks and is never satisfied: whence Ecclesiastes says: The covetous man shall not be filled with money. Sixthly, it makes a man unsociable or solitary; for as birds of prey fly not in flocks but solitarily, so the avaricious man is always solitary, because he never wills a companion in money: whence of the avaricious it is said in Ecclesiastes 4: It is one alone, and he hath not a second; and therefore his is that curse written in the same place: Woe to him that is alone, for if he fall, etc. Seventhly, it makes a man forgetful of his own salvation: and in sign of this Manasses and Ephraim were brothers, as is had in Genesis. Manasses is interpreted forgetting, Ephraim fruitful or growing, and he figures the avaricious man, who is growing Ephraim, that is, in riches, and is Manasses, because namely he forgets his own salvation. Eighthly, it makes a man straitened; for it is said in Ecclesiastes 10: The labor of fools shall afflict them. Therefore riches are called thorns in that place, because they crucify their possessors, as we see that a thorn in the foot suffers no quiet sleep. Ninthly, it makes a man stormy; for never can the covetous or avaricious man have peace, neither in conscience nor in his own house: whence it is said in Proverbs: He that pursueth avarice troubleth his own house. Such a one is like a dog which, while it gnaws a bone, is angry with everyone approaching it, whether stranger or known; because it is commonly said that a dog wills no companion in the kitchen.

But the daughters of avarice are twelve, namely usury, rapine, robbery, unjust tallage, fraud of merchants, deception of advocates, acceptance of gifts, simony for the promotion of kinsmen, the sins of the Anachitae, that is, of those who are promoted by favor and power of princes, deceit of merchants, avarice, scientiae [of knowledge], and the iniquity of gamesters.

For these sins, which avarice begets, are figured by the twelve dukes whom Ismael begot. For Ismael was an idolater, and figures the avaricious man: of whom it is said to the Ephesians: Avarice is the servitude of idols; his sons are rightly called dukes, because almost the whole world is led and ruled by those twelve sins which are born of avarice; for Isaiah says, c. 56: All have declined into their own ways, every one after his avarice, from the highest even to the lowest: and in Jeremiah it is said, c. 6: That from the least even to the greatest all study avarice.

§ VI. — OF GLUTTONY.

Ex Centiloquio, Sect. 23. There follows to be considered concerning gluttony under four heads, namely as to its definition, its opposition, its differences, and its daughters. Now gluttony is defined as to excess in food thus: Gluttony is the immoderate love of eating. But as to excess in drink it is called drunkenness, which Seneca defines thus: I define drunkenness as nothing else but willful madness. But as to excess of food and drink, it may be defined thus: Gluttony is the immoderate love of nourishment. Likewise thus: Gluttony is the immoderate love of the delight which is about, or according to, taste. According to this, gluttony can be taken strictly for immoderation in food, and so parsimony is opposed to it: or broadly it can be taken for immoderation in food and drink alike, and so sobriety, which keeps the mean in both, is opposed to it.

The differences or conditions of gluttony, according to Isidore, are four, namely what, how much, when, how. What pertains to the thing itself: when, if one desire it before the lawful time: how much, it is referred to immoderation: how, if one desire it too ardently. According to blessed Gregory there are five differences, comprehended in this verse:

Praepropere, laute, nimis, ardenter, studiose.

Praepropere pertains to the taking of food before the time: Laute pertains to the substance of the food, when namely it is in itself precious and delicate: Nimis to the quantity of food. Ardenter is attended to on the side of the affect: Studiose, on the side of the cognitive. The two last differences Isidore, according to St. Gregory, comprehends under that one which is the fourth manner.

Ex Dieta salutis cap. 8. Gluttony is compared to many detestable things. First it is like squinancy; for squinancy is a disease of the throat and quickly suffocates a man; so gluttony, which literally is a vice of the throat, easily strangles a man through sin. Whence it is said in Ecclesiasticus cap. 37: Many have died through repletion: with a fourfold death, namely death of nature, of guilt, of infamy, and of hell. — Secondly, it is compared to the kingly disease; for that disease requires great expenses, and thence it is called royal, because only kings and powerful men can especially suffice for expenses so great: so the vice of gluttony is of great expenses, which scarcely anything can suffice; for it is said in Ecclesiastes c. 6: All the labor of man is in his mouth, that is, whatever he acquires by labor he consumes gluttonously with his mouth. — Thirdly, it is compared to bulimia; for bulimia is a canine appetite which kills the gluttonous man because it cannot be sated: so cursed gluttony, after the manner of a canine appetite, kills the glutton, who can never be sated. Whence it is said in Proverbs c. 13: The tent of the impious is insatiable. — Fourthly, the glutton is compared to a sack pierced, or torn open at the bottom, which however much it receives on one side, so much it loses on the other: such a sack is the gluttonous man, who on one side has a kitchen for filling his belly, and on the other a privy for belching forth; and miserable is such a man, who is always given over to so vile an office. Whence it is said in Aggeus c. 1: He that hath gathered wages, and put them into a pierced sack. — Fifthly, the glutton is compared to the swine, for the pig is an animal given to gluttony; and the devil feeds and fattens his pigs and gluttons, namely the gluttonous, and afterwards sets them in the sepulchre of hell, that he may devour and be fed for eternity: whence it is said in Matthew cap. 8: If thou cast us out hence, send us into the swine, that is, into the gluttonous. — Sixthly, gluttony is compared to a bridle; for as the rider leads the horse wherever he will after he has bridled it: so gluttony leads the glutton into every sin, once a man allows himself to be bridled by the vice of gluttony: therefore of the glutton it is said in Ps. 31: With bit and bridle bind fast their jaws. — Seventhly, the glutton is compared to Esau, who for a food of lentils sold his birthright: so the gluttonous for gluttony sell eternal rewards; for it is said in the Lamentations cap. 1: Everywhere they have given precious things for food. — Eighthly, it is compared to the fish and the bird; for as fish are caught through the throat with the hook, and the bird is held by the neck with the snare; so the glutton is caught through the throat by the vice of gluttony, and especially among birds the glutton is like for three reasons. A bird cannot fly very high; so neither can the glutton desire heavenly things. Likewise fat birds, such as quails, in vintages when they are grown very fat, are easily caught by the hawk; so men given to gluttony are easily conquered by temptation. Likewise as a fat bird, namely when it is well gorged, will not come to the hand of its lord, however much flesh be shown to it: so gluttons flee the hand of God, however much He shows them red flesh, namely of the blessed Passion of Christ: for in Deuteronomy c. 3 it is said of the glutton: grown fat, gross, bloated, he forsook God his maker. The glutton is compared to a dog that leads the blind into the mire: for a dog leading the blind, on account of what it sees in the mire, leads the blind into the mire: so gluttony leads the glutton into the mire, namely into the filth of sin, and therefore the Wise Man counsels: Go not after thy lusts.

The damages of gluttony are specially six: The first is brutishness of mind as to the defect of reason; for St. Peter says: These, namely gluttons, are as irrational cattle; and also as to the defect of compassion; for with no compassion is the glutton moved toward the poor and afflicted, as if he were a brute animal. Whence it is said in Amos: They that drink wine in bowls, and are not moved for the breach of Joseph, that is, of the poor: the example of the rich glutton, who had no compassion on Lazarus, on whom nevertheless the dogs had compassion, licking his ulcers. The second is infirmity of body; for it is said in Ecclesiasticus: In much food there shall be no want of infirmity; and also a threefold death, namely of nature, of guilt, and of hell. The third is loquacity of mouth, as is clear of Herod, who at a banquet rashly promised and swore to the dancing girl that he would give whatever she should ask, and at her petition commanded the head of John the Baptist to be cut off, as is said in St. Mark. The fourth is want of things. The example of the Prodigal Son, who dissipated all his goods, until he was so poor that he desired to be filled with the husks of swine; which are the same as furtur according to some, and according to others the barks of trees.

The fifth is lust of the flesh; for from the nearness of the members, namely of the belly and the genitals, the confoederatio [confederacy] of vices is understood: Jeremiah says the same; to be sated, and they have committed adultery. The sixth is folly of heart: whence it is said in Proverbs: Whosoever is delighted with these shall not be wise: and Osee says that wine and drunkenness take away the heart.

The daughters of gluttony are two; namely gastrimargia and drunkenness. Gastrimargia is excess in food, and is called from gaster and margos, because the soul goes into the belly's gaster [paunch]. Drunkenness is excess in drink, and is called ebrietas, as it were extra bria [outside the cup]: for bria was anciently the word for a chalice or cup, which was the measure of drink; for wine was given by measure. And these two daughters are those daughters of which it is said in Proverbs: There are two daughters of the leech, saying, Bring, bring. The belly is called a leech, because after the manner of the leech it is sooner overwhelmed than sated, as St. Bernard says. Such leeches, therefore, namely of the belly, while they are daughters, namely gastrimargia and drunkenness, say, bring: for gastrimargia says, bring food; drunkenness says, bring drink: whence one wills to eat a little after drink, and to drink a little after food; and so on to infinity.

§ VII. — OF LUST.

Ex Dieta salutis. Lust is immoderate appetite according to touch. Concerning lust note specially three things: namely that it has an odious type, a gnawing loss, and a pernicious offspring.

Lust has many detestable figures and odious similitudes. First it is compared to hell: for in hell there are specially three things, namely burning fire, gnawing worm, and nourishing sulphur: so in the sin of lust there is the fire of concupiscence; the worm, namely the remorse of conscience; and the sulphur, namely the smoke of infamy; and therefore he who is in the sin of lust is already after a manner in the torment of hell. Whence it is said in Matthew: Take thee away, namely, O lustful one, so that one member perish, namely that most vile and unnameable one, than that thy whole body be cast into hell. — Secondly, the lustful man is compared to a foolish merchant, who gives a precious thing for a vile price: so the lustful man gives his soul for a vile price, namely for sin; whence it is said in Proverbs c. 6: The price of a harlot is scarce worth one loaf, but a woman captivates the precious soul of a man: and this foolish merchant does great wrong to Christ, who had most dearly bought the soul: for he ought to have said to the devil, who buys souls at so vile a price: I cannot sell thee my soul, because another, namely Christ, bought it at a price sufficiently greater; according to that which the Apostle says, 1 Cor. 6: For you are bought with a great price. For this foolish merchant, namely the lustful man, who made so great a market of his wares, it is no wonder if he soon emitted his capital; and therefore among all sinners the lustful man shall come to judgment most poor; for he sold and destroyed whatever he had, namely God and the Saints, soul, fame, glory, substance, and grace. — Thirdly, the lustful man is compared to the raven, which cleaves to carcasses, as is said in Genesis: so does the lustful man, because having left the ark of continence and chastity, he cleaves to carcasses, that is, to unclean delights. — Fourthly, the lustful man is compared to a foolish warrior, namely unarmed, who scarcely guards against his enemy when he sees him better armed; for the weapons of the devil are women, for they are the ballistae of the devil, striking from afar: then indeed the lustful man is foolish who cares not to flee his enemy: but attends to the beauty of the ballista. Likewise a woman adorned and beautiful with her ornaments is the sword of the devil well cleaving and well polished. The lustful man is so infatuated and attentive to the beauty of that sword that he cares not to flee the stroke of his enemy. Likewise women are castles in which the devil places banners, that is, divers garments: the lustful man approaches too near the castle where he sees the arms of the devil; because he does not guard, he is struck and cast down, so much is he touched by the beauty of the banners! whence the lustful man is well figured by Abimelech, of whom it is said in Judges cap. 9 that Abimelech coming to the town approached the tower, and behold, one woman casting a piece of a millstone from above upon his head broke his skull, and poured out his brains. This Abimelech approaching too near the tower is the lustful man, incautiously approaching a woman; the piece of the millstone which the woman cast, and which killed Abimelech, is the temptation which proceeds from a woman, and killed the miserable lustful man. — Fifthly, lust is compared to a seine, for the seine catches every kind of fish, and makes no distinction; but whatever it finds it seizes: so the sin of lust involves almost the whole world: for of the devil it is said in Habacuc cap. 1: He that fisheth with this seine hath lifted up all in his hook, hath drawn all in his seine. — Sixthly, lust is compared to Greek fire: for Greek fire burns horribly, and burns even water, and can scarcely be extinguished: so the fire of lust burns even in the cold and mortified, and devours almost everything; for of lust it is said: A fire that devoureth even unto destruction. And in Joel cap. 1: Fire, namely of lust, hath devoured the beautiful things of the desert, that is, beautiful men and women of this kind. And note that this Greek fire is wont to be extinguished with two things: namely with sand and with vinegar: because lust has these two great remedies, sand, that is, consideration of the unfruitfulness of this world, and vinegar, that is, the acrimony and austerity of penance. — Seventhly, the lustful man is compared to a horse: for a horse is worth nothing without spurs and bridle: so a man, unless he have the bridle of continence with the spurs of penance, becomes useless after the manner of an unbridled horse, through the wantonness of lust: therefore it is said in the Psalm: Be not made like the horse and the mule. — Eighthly, the lustful man is compared to a ship which is led by no helmsman as pilot; but is only permitted to follow the flow of the water; according to that which is commonly said: Who shaves to his wish, shaves to his sorrow: for a ship is never led of itself to port unless it be rightly led or steered by the sailor: our flesh is the ship, and the spirit is the sailor, but never will the flesh come to the port of salvation unless it be led by the spirit with the helm of virtue: nay, it would follow the flow of the water, that is, the impetus of lust, and at last would cast the man headlong into the ocean sea of eternal damnation. In figure of this it is said in Matthew that the little ship was covered with waves: because truly our flesh would be drowned in the waves of temptation, unless the help of divine virtue were at hand. — Ninthly, lust is compared to dung and mire, on account of its vileness; for as the pig moves about in mire, and the horse lies in its own dung: so lustful men persevering sometimes die in their own sin; and therefore it is said in Joel: The beasts have rotted in their own dung: whereupon St. Gregory says: For the beasts to rot in their own dung is for the lustful man to end his life in the stench of lust.

The damages of lust are six: First, it leads a man into the greatest poverty: for it takes away glory, grace, and his proper substance; as the prodigal son, by whom the lustful man is figured, dissipated his substance with harlots, living luxuriously. Secondly, it casts down into most wicked servitude, for it makes that the baser and viler part which is in man domineer over him. This servitude is figured by the servitude of Egypt, which was a servitude of clay and brick, as is said in Exodus, whereby is well understood lust, which is the muddy servitude of delight. Thirdly, it casts a man into the greatest vileness, because it makes a man who is like to God and the Angels to be equal to brutes: whence it is said in the Psalm: Man when he was in honor did not understand, namely that he was created to the image of God, he hath been compared to senseless cattle, and is become like to them. Fourthly, lust shamefully befools a man of all reason, as brute animals are befooled: as is clear in Solomon, who was of such great wisdom, and yet of him it is said that his heart was depraved on account of women. Fifthly, it sharply mortifies a man; for it kills with a threefold death, namely death of guilt, death of infamy, death of hell; and therefore it is said in Ecclesiastes: I have found a woman more bitter than death: for the death of nature is simple and transitory: but the death of lust is manifold and everlasting. Sixthly, it strongly ensnares a man: whence it is said also in Ecclesiastes of the woman: Her house is the way of hell: the snare of hunters, that is, of demons, who hunt the souls of sinners: her heart is a net, her hands are bonds. And note here concerning the woman a threefold kind of capture; namely the snare whereby birds are caught; the net whereby swimming things are caught; and the bonds wherewith wild and terrestrial animals are caught. But lust catches birds, that is, the proud: swimming things, that is, the luxurious: and terrestrial animals, that is, the avaricious; and so almost nothing escapes it.

The daughters of lust are five: namely fornication, which is committed with an unmarried woman: adultery, which is committed with one married: stuprum, which is with a virgin, or a religious: incest, which is with a relative by affinity or consanguinity: and sins against nature. Of these five daughters there is a figure in the fourth book of Kings, where it is said that the fourth part of a cadus of pigeon's dung was sold for five silver pieces. The dung of the dove, which is a lustful bird, figures the uncleanness of lust; the five silver pieces for which the dung is bought or sold are those five sins, whereby the lustful man procures delight. And well is the fourth part of a cadus of dung bought for five silver pieces, because since there are four in the sin of lust, namely thought, delight, consent, and operation; one only of these, namely delight, that is, the fourth part of the sin, the lustful man especially draws out and procures.

From all the aforesaid vices may the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost mercifully absolve us, and mightily snatch us away. Amen.

All these things I have excerpted from the diverse books of the Seraphic Doctor, and therefore have judged them to be inserted here, that the reader may be able to uncover the fountain of each vice, and thence perceive the rivulets of evils flowing forth.