Apologeticae sive Theologiae Fundamentalis, Tomus I: Demonstratio Christiana

The rationalists, who shrink from the messiahship and divinity of Jesus, extol in words "the wise man of Nazareth." Yet undeservedly. For if Jesus is not the Messiah and God, neither can He be wise. For a man who, by deceiving, falsely calls himself the Messiah and God — and does so seriously, constantly, publicly, demanding the supreme faith, the supreme love, and the supreme worship due to God — is not wise but foolish, nay, insane. For this reason quite a few modern critics, rather than call Jesus the Messiah and God, have called Him insane. Against this opinion, as empty as it is blasphemous, we maintain: Jesus gave no signs of insanity; on the contrary, He displayed the highest signs of wisdom.

Certain ultraradical unbelievers maintain that Jesus was insane; many radicals and liberals, however, contend that he was at least mentally disturbed. The former are rightly called psychiatric critics; the latter, psychopathic critics.

1. The psychiatric criticism.

The psychiatric criticism maintains that Jesus was insane, alleging his delusional fury and his delusional fanaticism.¹

a) They conclude that Jesus was driven by a delusional fury from certain deeds of his own and from the judgment of his contemporaries.

The deeds are the expulsion of the sellers from the temple and the cursing of the barren fig tree.²

Jesus threatens the sellers in the temple precinct with a whip, overturns their seats and the tables of the money-changers, and drives out all the profaners of the house of God, saying: "It is written: My house shall be called a house of prayer; but you have made it a den of thieves."³ Everyone can see that Jesus acted out of a just zeal for the glory of God, and was not moved by a delusional fury. — Jesus cursed a tree that had leaves, yet neither bore fruit nor promised any,⁴ to signify the severity of the punishment with which fruitless men, and above all the Jewish people, would be visited. Therefore that curse was by no means an act of delusional fury, but a typical or symbolic action, of the kind that occur in countless numbers in the Old Testament and among all oriental peoples.

The judgments of his contemporaries the evangelists report as follows: "For they said: He is beside himself [ἐξέστη]… he has Beelzebub, and by the prince of demons he casts out demons."⁵ "He has a demon and is mad; why do you listen to him?"⁶ The Jews therefore maintain that Jesus was possessed by a demon and consequently deprived of his own senses, because he professed himself the Messiah, worked miracles, and contradicted the Pharisees. This judgment proves not the insanity of Jesus, but the unbelief of the Jews.

b) They say that Jesus, carried away by a delusional fanaticism, commanded his disciples both to mutilate themselves and to pursue their relatives with implacable hatred. Indeed he already said to the disciples: "There are eunuchs who have been so from their mother's womb, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by men, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. He who is able to receive this, let him receive it."⁷ … "If your right eye causes you to sin, pluck it out and throw it away from you... And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away from you: for it is better for you that one of your members perish, than that your whole body go into hell."⁸

It is evident, however, that Jesus commands not a physical mutilation, but a moral mortification for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. — Likewise, speaking of discipleship, he says: "If anyone comes to me and does not hate his father and mother and wife and children and brothers and sisters, and even his own life, he cannot be my disciple."⁹ He bids us bid farewell to our relatives rather than to discipleship of Jesus; he does not in the proper sense bid us hate our relatives, he who commands us to love even our enemies.¹⁰ These and similar words, spoken hyperbolically in the manner of the orientals, are to be understood spiritually, not materially.

2. The psychopathic criticism.

The psychopathic criticism affirms that Jesus was mentally disturbed, attributing to him hallucinations and ecstatic exaltations.¹¹

a) They contend that Jesus suffered from ecstatic hallucinations, that is, vain phantasms of the senses, at the baptism, in the temptation, at the return of the disciples from their preaching, at the transfiguration, and in the agony.

At the baptism he saw, through an error of the eyes, a dove, and perceived, through a delusion of the ears, a voice from heaven; in the temptation he underwent a manifold sensory hallucination, falsely persuading himself of a devil tempting, speaking, and transporting him, and of angels ministering to him; at the transfiguration he falsely imagined a light from heaven, the wraiths of Moses and Elijah, and the words of the Father; in the agony he was deluded by a vain imagination of an angel descending from heaven and consoling him; at the return of the disciples from their preaching he was likewise deceived by a hallucination of the devil falling from heaven.

In reality, however, it is the adversaries themselves who hallucinate, thinking that Jesus saw with his eyes Satan falling from heaven, whereas from the context it is clear that the Lord, speaking metaphorically, was only extolling the victory which he had won over Satan and his kingdom.¹² — Likewise the unbelievers err who contend that the things narrated concerning the baptism, temptation, transfiguration, and agony of Jesus are not objectively true, but only Jesus' purely subjective hallucinations. The evangelists affirm the historicity of these events, trusting the testimony of Jesus, and partly also that of John the Baptist, Peter, James, and John, who were present either at the baptism or at the transfiguration; the modern critics, on the other hand, deny the historical truth of the events altogether gratuitously. Their only ground for denying is unbelief, which refuses to admit the existence of angels and demons and every supernatural power of God in the world. For the sake of this philosophical rationalism they do not shrink from accusing Jesus Christ of psychopathic hallucinations!

b) They bluster that Jesus indulged in ecstatic exaltations, that is, a morbid enthusiasm, throughout his whole life. Why? Because he dulled his concern for temporal things; because he ardently sought the things that were his Father's; because he loved solitary places for the sake of prayer; because, scorning marriage, he chose a celibate life; because he insisted on sublime precepts; because he affirmed that the kingdom of heaven was at hand; because he foretold his passion and his death; because he worked miracles; because he taught that his doctrine was heavenly; because he announced that he himself had come from heaven; because he showed himself the envoy and the Son of God; because he announced that he would come to judge the world. In a word: the psychopathic critics call Jesus a dreaming enthusiast, because he had a supernatural and superhuman self-consciousness, and because his whole life corresponded perfectly to this self-consciousness.¹³

Behold, then, the whole psychiatric and psychopathic criticism of Jesus: the former declares Jesus mentally disturbed or insane for this reason, that he refused to be merely a man, but was Messiah-God; indeed, at times this pseudo-criticism accuses not only Jesus, but also his parents and relatives and the whole people of Israel of a religious paranoia (madness), because they believed in and worshipped God and looked for the Messiah and the kingdom of heaven.¹⁴ Hence the ultimate ground of the psychiatric and psychopathic criticism is a preconceived hatred of revelation, or even of all religion and of God himself, not the psychic state of Jesus. If we examine this state, it will be evident, on the contrary, that Jesus excelled in the highest wisdom.

The psychic state of Jesus is to be judged from his own psychic or intellectual acts, i.e., from the manner in which he taught and from the truths which he taught. If these acts were sound, then Jesus' mind itself was sound, since it is impossible that a madman should perform wise acts.¹ Now Jesus' intellectual acts were not only wise, but indeed most wise. Therefore Jesus proved himself supremely wise.

1. The manner in which Jesus taught.

Jesus set forth his doctrine with a calm heart, with clear speech, with a keen intellect.

a) With a calm heart. The founders of false religions propagate their doctrine with immoderate zeal, with force and deceit, with fire and sword.

Jesus, however, to persuade men simply preaches the truth and confirms it by miracles, and he recommends the same manner of acting to his disciples.² He rejects every untimely manner and every violent means. To the apostles who sought that fire come down from heaven upon the Samaritans resisting the gospel, he answers: "You do not know of what spirit you are. The Son of man did not come to destroy souls, but to save them."³ He rebukes Peter fighting with the sword for his master: "Put your sword back into its place. For all who take the sword will perish by the sword."⁴ The proper character of the whole gospel is gentleness, charity, peace, moderation, mercy: "Blessed are the peacemakers... Blessed are the merciful... Blessed are the meek... Blessed are they who suffer persecution for the sake of justice..."⁵ Hence Jesus can say: "Learn from me, because I am meek and humble of heart, and you will find rest for your souls."⁶

b) With clear speech. Horace's "I hate the profane crowd and keep it away" was the watchword of all the pagan philosophers. But the Jewish scribes, too, despised the unlearned people.⁷ Jesus indeed readily receives the experts in the law and all the learned who come to him, and speaks with them in scholastic fashion, as is evident, e.g., from the conversation with the teacher Nicodemus, with the Pharisees in the temple, with the men of the Sanhedrin at the trial. Yet he more willingly instructs the unlettered common people: "The poor are evangelized... Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven."⁸ And indeed he addresses them with speech so accommodated to the common understanding that the crowds press upon him everywhere and, fasting, support him while he teaches for several days.⁹

For, abhorring the veneer of eloquence and the cabbalistic exegesis of the rabbis, he uses popular and familiar words. He utters sentences as brief as they are perspicuous, which strike the mind no less than the memory, so that even today they are proverbial among all peoples.¹⁰

Moreover, "he spoke the word to them in many parables, as they were able to hear"¹¹ For very many of the Jews were blinded by unbelief, so that they could not or would not grasp "the mysteries of the kingdom of God". For this reason Jesus most fittingly uses parables, whose force believers could understand, but whose word could not escape even the unbelievers themselves.¹² Finally, by innumerable sensible and common examples he raises his disciples to the grasping of insensible and supernatural things. Surely no literary monuments equal the gospel in clarity and simplicity. And this very clarity and simplicity of his speech already prove that Jesus excels:

c) With a keen intellect. Jesus had attended neither the rabbinic schools, in which future scribes were trained for many years, nor had he even learned letters.¹³ Yet he manifests an astonishing keenness of mind and subtlety of judgment. Already as a boy of twelve he sat in the temple in the midst of the teachers, listening to them and questioning them. "And all who heard him were astounded at his understanding and his answers."¹⁴ And when he first taught in the city of Capharnaum, "many who heard him marveled at his teaching... at the words of grace that proceeded from his mouth", and they said: "Where does this man get this wisdom and these mighty works? Where then does this man get all these things?"¹⁵

Thereupon he illuminates his whole gospel with wonderful strength of mind and wisdom. He shrewdly passes judgment on the six hundred precepts of the rabbis and their unbearable burdens, and easily detects how empty they are, despite the opposing tradition and common and inveterate observance.¹⁶ He sees through and interprets the Sacred Scriptures of the whole Old Testament, and likewise lays bare and corrects the false explanations of the scribes.¹⁷ He proposes his own most profound doctrines, never hesitating, never doubting, never deliberating, never emending: "It was said to the ancients... But I say to you...

"Amen, amen I say to you..."¹⁸ By this keenness, majesty, and gravity of teaching the people were struck with astonishment: "The crowds were amazed at his teaching: for he was teaching them as one having authority, and not as their scribes and pharisees."¹⁹

Indeed, Jesus surpasses all his learned Jewish adversaries in subtlety of intellect. Although he never uses the cunning, cavils, sophisms, or ambiguities of the rabbis, he nevertheless always gains an easy triumph over them. Think of the disputation with the Herodians, who "could not catch his word before the people, and marveling at his answer they were silent";²⁰ the encounter with the Sadducees, whom he publicly convicts of ignorance of the Scriptures and utterly confounds;²¹ the altercations with the Pharisees, whom he drives into such straits "that no one could answer him a word, nor did anyone dare from that day on to question him anymore";²² the officers of the chief priests, who, sent to seize Jesus, return stupefied, saying: "Never has a man spoken like this man."²³

2. The truths which Jesus taught.

The doctrines set forth by Jesus do not pertain to the profane order, but look to the sacred. Jesus therefore did not manifest himself as a scientific, artistic, or political genius, but as a religious one. Although through the Christian religion the sciences, the arts, and the social good are also mediately promoted, and indeed most brilliantly, Jesus nonetheless came immediately to communicate to us supernatural salvation.²⁴ This salvation, which he merited for us by his life and his death, he also taught by word, setting forth a most wise religious doctrine about God, about man, and about the world.²⁵ There is no reason for us to say that this doctrine far surpasses the ethico-religious philosophy.²⁶ That it excels, however, even the revelation of the Old Testament and rabbinic theology, and hence the whole pre-Christian wisdom, will be evident from what follows.²⁷

a) The religious doctrine about God. The Old Testament proclaims God above all as the supreme king, almighty, holy, just, and terrible, although it also remembers him as a merciful, kind, and long-suffering lord. It very rarely calls him Father, and only in that sense, that he, as it were, begot men by creation, educated them by revelation, and governs them by providence.²⁸ The rabbinic Jews conceived of God as an abstract being which admits of no connection with the world and whose ineffable name it is impious to pronounce.²⁹ Jesus, however, never separates the majesty, holiness, and justice of God from the divine fatherhood. Everywhere he exhibits God as the best father of all men, who pursues us with infinite love, mercy, grace, and kindness;³⁰ who provides for the spiritual and bodily needs of each one;³¹ who has mercy even on the unjust and sinners, and seeks and draws them with a singular love.³² The disciples of Jesus continually repeat that no one but Jesus handed down this supremely wise concept of God, by which we call him our heavenly Father: "The only-begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, he has made him known."³³ This Jesus himself confirms: "No one knows the Father except the Son, and him to whom the Son chooses to reveal him."³⁴

b) The religious doctrine about man announced by Jesus³⁵ corresponds to the concept of God already expounded. Since God is the heavenly Father of all men, all men also are sons of God. In the Old Testament the Israelites indeed, and above all the pious and just Israelites, are also called sons of God because of their special election, by which they were set apart from other men;³⁶ and so also the rabbinic Jews at the time of Christ boasted of being sons of God, priding themselves and despising other men.³⁷³⁸ Jesus, however, proclaims all men, not excepting pagans and the wicked, sons of God. All are bidden to pray in the manner of sons: "Our Father, who art in heaven."³⁹ All are admonished: "See what love the Father has given us, that we should be named and be sons of God... Beloved, now we are sons of God."⁴⁰ Almost the whole gospel is summed up in this word, that it teaches us to be sons loved by God and adopted by charity, just as God is taught to be our Father.

Now to this dignity of the sons of God correspond also the moral duties which are prescribed to us toward God, toward our fellow men, and also toward ourselves. As sons of God we are commanded: to love God with the worship of filial love. The love of God prescribed in the Old Testament was rather a servile love shown to the supreme and most just king. Indeed, for the most part the Israelites, and especially the Pharisees, loved God with their lips rather than with their heart, as Christ testifies of them: "Isaiah prophesied well of you hypocrites: This people honors me with their lips, but their heart is far from me."⁴¹ Jesus, however, requires that we glorify God the Father with filial heart and soul, do his will, and expect from him with confidence all things needful to us.⁴² What is indeed everywhere expressed in the gospel⁴³ Jesus comprehends in a few words, teaching us to pray thus: "Our Father, who art in heaven: hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, as in heaven, so on earth. Give us this day our daily bread..."⁴⁴

To love men with brotherly love. Although the Old Testament commanded the love of neighbor,⁴⁵ it did not, however, join this precept with the precept of the love of God. Indeed, the rabbis said that only the just Israelites are to be loved.⁴⁶ Jesus, however, since he teaches that all men are sons of the heavenly Father, commands that all likewise be loved for the sake of the heavenly Father, even foreigners and pagans,⁴⁷ the unjust and sinners,⁴⁸ enemies and persecutors.⁴⁹ This precept of brotherly love he calls his commandment, the new commandment, the commandment by which we may recognize his disciples, the commandment by which the whole evangelical law is fulfilled.⁵⁰ Indeed, Jesus adds and appends this commandment to the precept of loving God: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart... This is the greatest and first commandment. But the second is like to this: Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself."⁵¹

To love ourselves with an intense striving after perfection. For since we are sons of God, it befits us to be assimilated to God also in holiness. The Old Testament commands men to be holy only because God is holy;⁵² the New, however, (commands them to be holy) in the manner in which God is holy: "Be you therefore perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect."⁵³ The Old Testament chiefly required the external works of the virtues, without, however, neglecting the inner goodness of the heart;⁵⁴ Pharisaic rabbinism, not attending to uprightness of heart, prescribed and practiced countless merely external burdens.⁵⁵ Jesus Christ rejects this semblance of justice and perfects the very justice of the ancient law. Hence he utterly abolishes merely external observances; he prescribes justice not only of works and words, but also of desires and thoughts;⁵⁶ finally, he establishes uprightness of heart and intention as the norm and measure of all holiness.⁵⁷ And of this holiness he gives this reason: "That you may be sons of your Father, who is in heaven."⁵⁸ This holiness, by which we are assimilated to the Father, he urged throughout his whole life, and, dying, he entreats it for us: "Holy Father: sanctify them in truth... For their sakes I sanctify myself, that they also may be sanctified in truth."⁵⁹ Yet he makes this most profound holiness and justice so easy, that he can say: "Take my yoke upon you... for my yoke is sweet and my burden light."⁶⁰

c) The religious doctrine about the world, as Jesus teaches it, is without example supreme. For it follows from the most wise doctrine about God and about man. In all worldly things Jesus beholds, praises, and loves the heavenly Father. Seeds and harvests are to him symbols of the word and of the divine kingdom.⁶¹ The calm and the stormy weather alike proclaim the heavenly Father, "who makes his sun to rise upon the good and the evil, and rains upon the just and the unjust"⁶² The heavenly Father directs even the smallest creatures and the vicissitudes of the world by his most benign will. With surpassing beauty he clothes the lilies of the field, and with the tenderest solicitude he feeds the birds of the air. Not even one sparrow is forgotten before him.⁶³ Therefore all earthly things shine with heavenly light and present a most joyful aspect, whatever the unbelievers prattle about the pessimism of Jesus.

It is certainly true that Jesus rejects a materialistic estimation of the world and an immanentistic "affirmation of life". For just as worldly things come from the heavenly Father, so they must be referred back to him. Jesus orders all natural things to the supernatural end and eternal life of man. He warns us that, fleeing pleasures, honors, glory, and worldly things, we should devote ourselves to heavenly things,⁶⁴ that, little solicitous about earthly treasures, we should first seek the kingdom of God and his justice,⁶⁵ that in all things and above all things we should work for the salvation of the soul: "For what does it profit a man, if he gain the whole world, but suffer the loss of his own soul?"⁶⁶ Thus the religious doctrine of Jesus is admirable in every respect. It evinces a knowledge of God, of the world, and of man, which surpasses the revelation of the Old Testament, far excels the theology of the rabbis, and wins every comparison with philosophy. Jesus therefore displayed the supreme signs of wisdom.