Apologeticae sive Theologiae Fundamentalis, Tomus I: Demonstratio Christiana

The rationalists acknowledge Jesus of Nazareth as an altogether eminent man, who by his character and religious genius taught men excellent things; nevertheless they deny him every messianic legation or mission. Indeed they contend that Jesus did not even regard and present himself as the Messiah sent by God, or at any rate did not present himself as the Messiah sent to found a divine religion.

Hence there arises a twofold question, concerning the fact and the meaning of the messianic testimony of Jesus. First, then, it is asked whether Jesus truly bore witness that he was the Messiah; secondly, it is asked in what sense Jesus bore witness of himself that he was the Messiah.

That Jesus of Nazareth professed himself to be the messianic legate of God is proved by the tenor of the Gospels, by the consensus of Christians, by the concession of unbelievers

1. The tenor of the Gospels. Nothing is more manifest than the testimony that Jesus gives on almost every page of the Gospels concerning his messianic consciousness and vocation. Both his words and his deeds inculcate this one thing, that he is the messianic legate sent by God. Once this testimony is removed, the whole Gospel history vanishes. Unless, therefore, we favor an absolute biblical scepticism, rejecting all sound criticism, we must concede the fact of Jesus' messianic profession.¹

2. The consensus of Christians. The whole primitive Church professed Jesus to be the Messiah. Peter on the day of Pentecost urges in Jerusalem: "Let all the house of Israel, therefore, know most certainly, that God has made him both Lord and Messiah, this Jesus, whom you crucified."² Paul preaches at Damascus: "That this is the Messiah";³ at Thessalonica he cries out: "That this is Jesus the Messiah, whom I announce to you";⁴ at Corinth he insists, "testifying to the Jews that Jesus is the Messiah";⁵ at Ephesus "he mightily refuted the Jews in public, showing by the Scriptures that Jesus is the Messiah".⁶ All the apostles "ceased not, every day, in the temple and from house to house, teaching and preaching Jesus as the Messiah"⁷. But this unanimous faith and this constant preaching of the disciples could in no way be explained, unless the Master himself had professed himself to be the Messiah.

3. The concession of unbelievers. Overcome by this testimony of the Gospels and of the disciples, the rationalists themselves, a few of the more radical excepted, admit that Jesus' messianic profession is the most certain of all facts, one that no person of serious mind would deny.⁸ They contend only this, that Jesus did not from the beginning of his preaching hold and present himself as the Messiah, but that gradually, during his public life and above all in the last days of his life, he persuaded himself that he was the messianic legate of God. To this opinion adhere those who maintain that Jesus did not receive his messianic vocation from God, but acquired it by a natural psychological development. Hence it is of great moment to prove that the messianic preaching of Jesus took its beginning already at the very outset of his public life, its growth in the progress of his public life, and its completion at the close of his public life.

By no means is it to be expected that Jesus, from the very outset of his public life, revealed his messianic consciousness and teaching in a perfect and complete manner. For this was prevented both by the wisdom of divine pedagogy and by the folly of the disciples and of the Jews. Nevertheless, as soon as Jesus begins his public life, his messianic manifestation also begins: by accepting the messianic testimony rendered to him by others and by himself presenting himself as the messianic Son of Man.

1. By accepting the messianic testimony rendered to him by others, namely by the precursor, by God, by the disciples, and by the demons.

John the Baptist announced by word and baptism that the kingdom of heaven, i. e. the messianic kingdom,¹ and the Messiah were drawing near, whose precursor he declared himself unworthy to be.² To the envoys of the Sanhedrin, however, who suspected that John himself was the Messiah, he replied: "Because I am not the Messiah. But in the midst of you there has stood one whom you do not know."³ A little later "John saw Jesus coming toward him and said: Behold the Lamb of God, behold him who takes away the sin of the world".⁴ When Jesus was baptized, the Spirit of God descended upon him and the voice of the Father testified from heaven: "This is my Son, in whom I am well pleased."⁵ All agree that by the descent of the Holy Spirit the messianic anointing of Jesus is signified; likewise, that the title "Son of God" signifies the Messiah, although it is not restricted to such a signification. In fact, Jesus understood this event concerning his anointing and messianic mission.⁶

In the same sense the tempting demon likewise acknowledges the messianity of Jesus, repeatedly calling him Son of God and challenging him to perform the miraculous works foretold of the Messiah.⁷ Soon many demons join the tempter, openly confessing Jesus as the Messiah: "Because they knew him to be the Messiah ... the anointed of God ... the holy one of God ... the Son of God ... the Son of the Most High".⁸

The first disciples likewise greet Jesus as the Messiah. Andrew announces to Simon: "We have found the Messiah, which is interpreted Christ."⁹ Philip warns Nathanael: "We have found Jesus, of whom Moses wrote in the law, and the prophets."¹⁰ Nathanael, scarcely having found Jesus, acclaims him: "Rabbi, you are the Son of God, you are the King of Israel."¹¹

All these messianic testimonies rendered to him Jesus accepts; indeed, he joyfully approves and confirms them.¹² He only forbids that the demons make his messianity public,¹³ both because he did not wish to be recognized with the help of demons, and because he first wished to correct the messianic concept of the Jews, who expected a merely political Messiah. Therefore Wellhausen, Wrede, and other moderns do wrong when, from that prohibition imposed upon the demons, they conclude that Jesus never, or at any rate not yet, held himself to be the Messiah.

2. By himself presenting himself as the messianic Son of Man. Jesus indeed does not yet assume the title of Messiah, because — as we have already said and shall show more fully in another place — the Jews falsely understood this title of a political Messiah, i. e. of a certain glorious son of David and king of Israel who was to overthrow the Roman empire. Hence, if he had at once publicly called himself the Messiah, the Jews would have turned his messianic work into a national insurrection. For this reason Jesus, meanwhile omitting the name of Messiah, takes upon himself the title "Son of Man". From the first day of his manifestation he calls himself the Son of Man¹⁴ and loves this name of his above all others even unto death.¹⁵

Since none of the disciples calls him the Son of Man, this appellation is found eighty-two times in the Gospel from the mouth of Jesus.

The reason why Jesus chose for himself the name of Son of Man is open and manifest. This term, on the one hand, did not at all admit of a political interpretation; on the other hand, it possessed full messianic significance. "Son of Man" (barnaša) in the Aramaic language indeed simply means man. Yet by usage, after the prophecy of Daniel 7, 13 sq., the Son of Man was commonly called also the Messiah promised in the Old Testament.¹⁶ It escapes no one that Jesus claimed this title for himself with a messianic meaning. For to what purpose, after all, would he have said with emphasis throughout his whole life that he was a man! Indeed, from the beginning of his manifestation he clearly declared that he was the messianic Son of Man.¹⁷ Moreover, as his public life proceeded, he bound to this title "Son of Man" his entire messianic preaching.

Indeed, in the course of his Galilean sojourn Jesus manifested his messiahship ever more clearly day by day: by attributing to himself the privileges of the Messiah, by performing the works of the Messiah, by claiming for himself the name of Messiah.

1. By attributing to himself the privileges of the Messiah. With the apostles chosen, Jesus traverses all of Galilee, preaching the gospel of the messianic kingdom.¹

But the greatest part of this gospel consisted in this, that the Son of man attributed to himself the excellent endowments and offices which pertain to the Messiah. The Son of man descended from heaven and will return to heaven.² The Son of man was sent and anointed by God.³ The Son of man calls all to the messianic kingdom and saves all sinners.⁴ The Son of man teaches with divine authority.⁵ The Son of man by his own power adds the New Testament to the Old.⁶ The Son of man will come again at the end of time as the glorious prince of the kingdom of God and the judge of the whole world.⁷ Hearing these things, no one could doubt that Jesus ascribed to himself messiahship taken in the strictest and most sublime sense.

2. By performing the works of the Messiah. To win for himself the faith of Jewish witnesses, Jesus continually strengthens and confirms the gospel of the Son of man with miracles. He works almost innumerable signs upon the elements, the sick, the possessed, and the dead. For Isaiah had prophesied that the Messiah would perform very many and very great miracles.⁸ The Jews knew this prophecy very well; as the Gospel testifies, they said: “When the Messiah comes, will he do more signs than this man does?”⁹ But Jesus himself also continually appeals to his miracles as the criteria of his messianic mission.¹⁰

He invokes these criteria more solemnly when John inquires through envoys about the messiahship of Jesus. For the Forerunner, “when he had heard in prison of the works of Christ, sending two of his disciples,¹¹ he said to him: ‘Are you the one who is to come, or shall we look for another?’”¹² But Jesus, multiplying miracles before the eyes of the two envoys, answers: “Go and report to John what you have heard and seen: the blind see, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead rise again, the poor have the gospel preached to them, and blessed is he who is not scandalized in me.”¹³

3. By claiming for himself the name of Messiah. Indeed, the Jews were still scandalized at him because he refused to play the role of the political Messiah expected by them. Therefore, having seen and experienced his miracles, very many indeed recognized him as a great prophet, but not as the Messiah.¹⁴ The few, however, who seemed to believe for the moment, believed only on this condition, that they would forthwith make Jesus the Messiah-King by stirring up an insurrection against the Romans.¹⁵ For this reason Jesus did not yet dare to bear the name of Messiah publicly before the Jews.¹⁶

With the Samaritans he could converse more openly, because they did not know the political-national Messiah of the Jews. Hence also before the Samaritan woman he declares in express words that he is the Messiah. After he had first shown himself to her as a “prophet” by revealing her hidden life, the woman said: “I know that the Messiah is coming (he who is called Christ); when therefore he comes, he will tell us all things.” Jesus says to her: “I am he, who am speaking to you.” And from that city many of the Samaritans believed in him and said: “For we ourselves have heard and we know that this is truly the Savior of the world.”¹⁷ Behold true faith in a spiritual Messiah!

Before the apostles too (who were gradually educated in the faith by divine patience¹⁸), Jesus claims for himself the name of Messiah. For when they had come to Caesarea Philippi toward the end of the Galilean sojourn, Jesus asks them: “But who do you say that I am?” Answering, Simon Peter said: “You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God.” But Jesus, praising and extolling the messianic confession of Peter, said: “Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jonah: because flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven.”¹⁹

At the time when Jesus, toward the end of his life, remained in Judaea and Jerusalem, he set the crowning touch upon the testimony of his messiahship: by correcting the messianic conception of the disciples, by perfecting the messianic instruction of the people, by completing the messianic confession before the judges.

1. By correcting the messianic conception of the disciples. The disciples already believed in the messiahship of the Master with full faith, although they did not yet regard Jesus as establishing a politico-messianic kingdom. Indeed, they had no doubt at all that he would soon erect this glorious kingdom of David. To correct this erroneous conception, Jesus "from that time [after the confession of Peter] began to show his disciples that he must go to Jerusalem, and suffer many things from the elders and scribes and chief priests, and be killed, and on the third day rise"¹ and "so enter into his glory"² Hitherto he had spoken of his death only in parables.³ From then on he is wholly intent upon teaching the apostles that the Messiah was to suffer and die, and so to erect the spiritual kingdom of God.

This messianic conception, however, the disciples could scarcely, if at all, grasp. Peter rebukes Jesus when he speaks of the passion⁴ and likewise, at the time of the passion, intends to fight with the sword, thinking that the politico-messianic kingdom was at hand.⁵ The sons of Zebedee likewise desire to obtain the first places in that kingdom.⁶ Indeed, not even after the death of Jesus do the disciples understand the suffering Messiah,⁷ but rather hope that he will immediately restore the kingdom of Israel.⁸ Once the fact of the resurrection is fully understood, the apostles at last lay aside political messianism.

2. By perfecting the messianic instruction of the people. Jesus likewise, toward the end of his life, instructed the Jewish crowds more and more from day to day, publicly illustrating his messiahship by words⁹ and by wonders.¹⁰ With the greatest care, too, he warns the people believing in him¹¹ that he has not come as an earthly king of the Jews, but rather as the spiritual savior of the whole world: "For the Son of man also is not come to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a redemption for many."¹² He will not enter messianic glory except through passion and death.¹³ "For as the lightning flashing from under heaven shines upon the things that are under heaven, so will the Son of man be in his day. But first he must suffer and be rejected by this generation."¹⁴

This teaching the people did not grasp. Many indeed acclaimed Jesus as the Messiah, but as a politico-national Messiah. Therefore they lead him into Jerusalem in triumph, acclaiming: "Hosanna to the son of David!"¹⁵ "Blessed is the king who comes!"¹⁶ "Hosanna, blessed is the king of Israel!"¹⁷ "Blessed is the kingdom of our father David that comes!"¹⁸

3. By completing the messianic confession before the judges. The Pharisees and the scribes avail themselves of the messianic ovation of the people in order to destroy Jesus.¹⁹ Before the Jewish judges they accuse him of having preached an apolitical messianism; before the Roman judge they denounce him as one preaching a political messianism, making himself a king and stirring up the people. On both occasions Jesus professes his messiahship in the most solemn manner.

When, namely, the judges of the Sanhedrin were assembled, the high priest interrogates Jesus: "I adjure you by the living God, that you tell us whether you are the Messiah, the Son of God." Jesus says to him: "You have said; nevertheless I say to you, from now on you will see the Son of man sitting at the right hand of God and coming on the clouds of heaven."²⁰

Brought before the Roman governor²¹ and asked by him: "Are you the king of the Jews?" he answers: "My kingdom is not of this world",²² signifying that he possesses a kingdom above the world. Asked again: "Then you are a king?" he answers Pilate: "You say that I am a king. For this I was born and for this I have come into the world, to bear witness to the truth. Everyone who is of the truth hears my voice!" He professes, therefore, that he has been sent into this world as the teacher of absolute truth and the prince of the spiritual messianic kingdom. But such a king and such a kingdom Pilate does not grasp.²³ Hence he judges that Jesus aspired to the politico-messianic kingdom dreamed of by the Jews. And this he announces in the words written above the cross of Jesus: "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews".²⁴

In reality, however, Jesus had throughout his whole life recoiled from this messianism. To restrain his followers from this pseudo-messianism, he had devoted the most diligent effort. At the beginning, in the progress, and at the end of his preaching he professed himself the Messiah, but a Messiah foreign to the ideas of his Jewish contemporaries.

With the fact of Jesus' messianic testimony established, it seems evident that He attributed messiahship to Himself in this sense: that in the name and by the authority of God He would teach men a perfect religion and unite them, redeemed, in the kingdom of heaven. Yet modern rationalists deny that Jesus understood His messiahship in this Christian sense, although He rejected the messianism that was current among most Jews of His time. In order to resolve fully this question of the gravest importance, one must first investigate the messianic concept held before Jesus, and then the messianic concept of Jesus Himself.

Although certain messianic notions or opinions are found among almost all peoples,¹ nevertheless messianism proper was first committed to writing in the books of the Old Testament, and was afterwards variously interpreted by the Jews down to the age of Christ. Hence we shall set forth the messianic concept both of the Old Testament and of the later Judaism.

That the books of the Old Testament are genuine is proved ex professo in the Introduction to Scripture. It is not, however, our concern to inquire into the genuineness of these books; it suffices to know that they already existed long before Christ. And in fact it has long since been established and conceded by all that the Hebrew canon of the Old Testament was in existence at least three centuries before Christ, and that the Greek version of the LXX was written at least by the middle of the second century before Christ, although it can easily be shown — and is universally conceded — that many books of the Old Testament are much more ancient.

That these books, moreover, treat at length of the future messianic legate of God is likewise established both by the countless testimonies of the books themselves,¹ and by the faith of the Jews, who drew their messianic hope from the sacred Scriptures of the Old Testament,² and finally by the consensus of both friends and foes of the Christian cause.

The messianic concept, however, which the books of the Old Testament contain, concerns both the person and the kingdom of the Messiah.

1. The person of the Messiah is described by the titles given to him. The Savior awaited by the whole Old Testament is called the Messiah simply, the Son of David, the Servant of God, the Son of Man, the Son of God.

a) Messiah. In itself, indeed, the messianism of the Old Testament is in no way connected with the name "Messiah" ("Christ, the Anointed One"). By this name are called everywhere in the sacred books the kings and priests upon whom the royal or priestly office was conferred by anointing. Since, however, the future Savior was awaited as a priest and king — said with emphasis — the title of Messiah was fitting for him as well. This title, however, is attributed to him only three times in the whole Old Testament.³ Finally, as the Christian era drew near, the longed-for Redeemer began to be commonly called the Messiah, the other messianic titles being nevertheless retained, of which the most frequent:

b) Son of David, or even David without any addition. For because David was a type of the Messiah, the latter himself is often called David.⁴ More often, however, he bears the title Son of David, both because the Messiah was to be descended from the family of David,⁵ and because he was to possess the throne of David forever.

For a twofold promise was made to David by God, the one conditional, the other absolute. Conditionally, a temporal, political kingdom was promised to David, to last as long as the Davidic line should not fall away from God.⁶ This condition the Davidic line and the people governed by it did not fulfill, but they fell away from God and were therefore rejected, the temporal political kingdom being overthrown.⁷

Absolutely, however, there was promised to David a son king, whose throne and kingdom should stand forever: "Once have I sworn by my holy one, if [surely] I shall lie to David: his seed shall remain forever, and his throne [immutable] as the sun before me, and as the moon perfect [it shall be perfect] forever, and a faithful witness [God] in heaven."⁸

In fact, although the political power of the house of David was taken away and its family fortunes ruined, nevertheless it is constantly promised that the Son of David will reign over Israel forever,⁹ nay, that he will rule over all nations,¹⁰ a dominion, to be sure, spiritual and religious. The Son of David will teach all the peoples of the whole world perfect ways and truths.¹¹ "In his days shall justice spring up and abundance of peace, till the moon be taken away. And he shall rule from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth. And all kings of the earth shall adore him, all nations shall serve him. And in him all the tribes of the earth shall be blessed."¹² Therefore the Messiah is said to be about to obtain the kingdom of David in this sense, that he himself will rule in a spiritual manner the people of God of the whole world, whom David governed in a temporal respect in Judea alone.

c) Servant of God. Whereas the title Son of David exhibits the Messiah as the head of a religious and universal kingdom, the Messiah is described under the title Servant of God as suffering and dying¹³ for the sins of men, and by this work of redemption meriting the glory of the messianic kingdom.¹⁴ Him God sends not only for the conversion of Israel, but that he may be "a light to the gentiles" and for salvation "to the end of the earth".¹⁵ For since he himself "committed no iniquity, neither was there guile in his mouth",¹⁶ by his vicarious passion and death he blots out our iniquity: "Surely he has borne our infirmities and carried our sorrows... But he was wounded for our iniquities, he was bruised for our crimes; the chastisement of our peace was upon him, and by his bruise we are healed. All we like sheep have gone astray, every one has turned aside into his own way; and the Lord has laid on him the iniquity of us all."¹⁷ He expiates the sins of the whole world.¹⁸ Through him "all the ends of the earth shall be converted to the Lord, and all the kindreds of the gentiles shall adore in his sight".¹⁹ Finally, having died, he will rise again to a new life and at the right hand of God be crowned with eternal glory.²⁰

d) Son of Man. Leaving the right hand of God, the Messiah, in the form of the Son of Man, will come again on the clouds of heaven to judge the world and to take up the dominion of the messianic kingdom acquired by his passion, death, and resurrection. For this is the meaning of Daniel's prophecy concerning the Son of Man: "I beheld therefore in the vision of the night, and lo, with the clouds of heaven one like the Son of Man came [to judgment], and he came even to the Ancient of days. And they presented him before him. And he gave him power and honor and a kingdom, and all peoples, tribes, and tongues shall serve him: his power is an everlasting power, which shall not be taken away, and his kingdom, which shall not be destroyed."²¹

e) Son of God. Considering the altogether superhuman dignity and office of the Messiah, we do not wonder that he is proclaimed God. In almost innumerable places of the Old Testament God himself is promised to come to redeem his people, e. g.: "Jahve himself will come and will save you".²² "Prepare the way of the Lord [Jahve], make straight in the wilderness the paths of our God [Elohim] ... Behold your God [Elohim]; behold the Lord God [Jahve Elohim] shall come in strength."²³ In the second psalm the Messiah Redeemer is more explicitly called the Son of Jahve. For to the Messiah, sent and anointed by God,²⁴ are attributed the words: "Jahve said to me: You are my Son; today I have begotten you."²⁵

More expressly Isaiah calls the Redeemer Emmanuel, i. e., God with us: "Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and his name shall be called Emmanuel."²⁶ That Emmanuel is true God is clear from this, that he is identified with Jahve, the Lord and ruler of Israel.²⁷

Moreover, what lies hidden, as it were, enclosed in the single name of Emmanuel, the prophet openly declares thus: "To them that dwelt in the region of the shadow of death, light is risen... For a child is born to us, and a son is given to us; and the government is upon his shoulder; and his name shall be called: Wonderful, Counsellor, God the Mighty, Father of the world to come, Prince of Peace. His empire shall be multiplied, and there shall be no end of peace; he shall sit upon the throne of David and upon his kingdom, to establish it and strengthen it with judgment and with justice, from henceforth and forever."²⁸

The names given to the Messiah in the text appear to be appellatives of deity: "Wonderful" [Hebr. "miracle"], Counsellor, "Prince of Peace", but especially "Father of the world to come" and "God the Mighty". "Father of the world to come" — or, according to the Hebrew text, "Father of eternity, eternal Father" — only God can be called. A fortiori, only Jahve — and he indeed is often called "God the Mighty" [Hebr. "El gibbor"] in sacred Scripture.²⁹

With this testimony of Isaiah agrees that of Malachi: "Behold, I send my angel, and he shall prepare the way before my face. And presently [Hebr. unexpectedly] the Ruler shall come to his temple, whom you seek, and the angel of the covenant, whom you desire; behold, he comes, says the Lord of hosts."³⁰ The divinity of the Messiah is clearly declared by these words, in that 1° he is called the Ruler, by which appellation, everywhere except in our passage, nothing but Jahve, the true God, is designated;³¹ 2° he comes to his temple, although the temple of Jerusalem is God's alone; 3° it is the same to prepare the way for the Ruler and to prepare the way before the face of the Lord of hosts.

In these passages of the Old Testament the divinity of the Messiah is proclaimed so clearly that St. Justin reproaches the Jews of his time (2nd cent. A. D.): "When we bring before them those Scriptures which show in express words that Christ is passible, adorable, and God, they indeed, constrained by necessity, assent that they were spoken of Christ; but this man [Jesus of Nazareth] they dare to deny to be the Christ, while they confess that one is to come who will suffer and reign and be adored as God."³²

The person of the Messiah having been described by these titles, the messianic concept is completed by another technical term, by which the work to be accomplished by the Messiah is more precisely set forth; namely:

2. The Kingdom of the Messiah. "The kingdom of God" or "the kingdom of heaven"³³ is, according to Semitic usage, the royal dominion over the world exercised by God and acknowledged by men.³⁴ Thus the synagogal theocracy, by virtue of the covenant entered into between Jahve and the people of Israel, could have been called the kingdom of God. Nevertheless, with this name the prophets emphatically designate only the kingdom to be founded and governed by the Messiah. And indeed they so describe the nature of the messianic kingdom that it is a kingdom new, universal, and spiritual.

a) A new kingdom, the old covenant being abolished. For in place of the law, priesthood, sacrifice, and worship of the old covenant there will be substituted a new law, a new priesthood, a new sacrifice, and a new worship. The new law: "Behold the days shall come ... and I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and with the house of Juda: not according to the pact which I made with their fathers in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt: the pact which they made void, and I had dominion over them, says the Lord. But this shall be the pact which I will make with the house of Israel: I will give my law in their bowels, and I will write it in their heart: and I will be their God, and they shall be my people."³⁵

The new priesthood: For since the Mosaic priests were chosen from Israelites alone and indeed from the tribe of Levi alone, it is predicted that in messianic times priests are to be taken from all nations: "And I will take of them [the gentiles] for priests and Levites, says the Lord."³⁶

The new sacrifice and new worship: For of the sacrifices and the whole worship of the Israelites it is written: "I have no pleasure in you, says the Lord of hosts, and I will not receive a gift of your hand. For from the rising of the sun even to the going down, my name is great among the gentiles, and in every place there is sacrifice, and there is offered to my name a clean oblation: for my name is great among the gentiles, says the Lord of hosts."³⁷

Since, moreover, the new covenant extends even to the gentiles, it is clear that the kingdom of the Messiah will be:

b) A universal, not a national kingdom. The Mosaic covenant, although men of other nations could subject themselves to it, nevertheless regarded only the Israelites. The kingdom of the Messiah, however, will begin from Judea and Jerusalem, from there pass over to the gentiles, and by their continued accession grow and gradually extend even to the ends of the whole world.

"For out of Sion shall the law go forth, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem."³⁸

"And I will send of them [the Israelites] that shall be saved, to the gentiles into the sea, into Africa and Lydia ... into Italy and Greece, to the islands afar off, to them that have not heard of me and have not seen my glory. And they shall declare my glory to the gentiles; and they shall bring all your brethren out of all nations ... to my holy mountain Jerusalem."³⁹

"All the ends of the earth shall remember and be converted to the Lord; and all the kindreds of the gentiles shall adore in his sight."⁴⁰

But a universal kingdom must necessarily be:

c) A spiritual, not a material kingdom. That the Messiah will also bestow earthly and political goods, many texts of the prophets announce. It is true, indeed, that the prophets for the most part use these material things to signify immaterial things; nevertheless, at times they seem to promise goods that are strictly material too. Nay, just as the observance of the divine law had always been for the Israelites the most abundant source of earthly blessing, so the Jews, if they had received the Messiah, would also have inherited material happiness and been preserved from political ruin.⁴¹

That spiritual and religious goods, however, will be essential to the messianic kingdom is already clear from what has been said about the person of the king, the Messiah. In fact, the kingdom of the Messiah will abound in divine knowledge, grace, and pardon.

Divine knowledge. Idolatry being removed, the messianic kingdom will bring a perfect and unfailing knowledge of divine things. "And it shall come to pass in that day, says the Lord of hosts, that I will destroy the names of idols out of the earth, and they shall be remembered no more."⁴² "The earth is filled with the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters covering the sea."⁴³ "This is my covenant with them, says the Lord: my spirit, which is in you, and my words, which I have put in your mouth, shall not depart out of your mouth, nor out of the mouth of your seed, nor out of the mouth of your seed's seed, says the Lord, from henceforth and forever."⁴⁴

Divine grace. The kingdom of God will shine with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit and with charisms. "And it shall come to pass after this: I will pour out my spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions. Moreover, upon my servants and handmaids in those days I will pour out my spirit."⁴⁵

Divine pardon. In messianic times the sins of men will be remitted and blotted out: "In that day there shall be a fountain open to the house of David and to the inhabitants of Jerusalem for the washing of the sinner."⁴⁶ "In those days and at that time, says the Lord, the iniquity of Israel shall be sought for, and there shall be none; and the sin of Juda, and it shall not be found: for I will be merciful to them."⁴⁷ "I will be merciful to their iniquities, and I will remember their sins no more."⁴⁸ "If your sins be as scarlet, they shall be made as white as snow; and if they be red as crimson, they shall be white as wool."⁴⁹ "I have blotted out your iniquities as a cloud, and your sins as a mist; return to me, for I have redeemed you."⁵⁰

Hence the messianic concept of the Old Testament may be defined approximately thus: the Messiah, heir of the Davidic house (Son of David) and endowed with a divine nature (Son of God), will by his vicarious death redeem all men from their sins (Servant of God) and will call them into a new religious society (kingdom of God), to be governed by him and at the end of time judged by him (Son of Man).

There was not one single messianic view among all the Jews who lived shortly before Christ or were contemporaries of Christ. Most cherished rabbinic messianism, others an eschatological, others a biblical one.

1. Rabbinic or Pharisaic messianism.¹ Pharisaico-rabbinic theology flourished most from the Babylonian exile down to the age of Christ, although it was committed to writing only in the first Christian centuries. Led by zeal for the Mosaic law, the rabbis, almost wholly neglecting the other books of the Old Testament, extolled the Torah alone, i. e. the Mosaic Pentateuch, in so far as it contains precepts. To the Torah they added the Mishnah, i. e. the tradition of the fathers embracing innumerable prescriptions.² Finally, to the Mishnah itself the rabbis, by force of cabbalistic exegesis,³ added the Gemara (Talmud).⁴ Rabbinic nomism, therefore, consisted of a threefold concentric circle: the Torah or the law; the Mishnah or the body of law, and the Gemara (Talmud) or the commentary on the body of law. According to the rabbis these three, taken together, constitute the revealed Law of Moses.⁵ The nucleus, however, of the threefold law is messianism.

And indeed, according to the rabbis, the kingdom of God descended from heaven together with the Law on Mount Sinai.⁶ With the Mosaic covenant concluded, the people of Israel was redeemed;⁷ all nations were subjected to the dominion of the Israelites; all material and sensual goods were conferred on the children of Abraham; nay, paradise itself was again established on earth.⁸

This kingdom of God, alas, perished through the adoration of the golden calf and will return only upon the perfect observance of the Law.⁹ In the time of David that happy observance of the Law was almost at hand, and the kingdom of the Messiah had begun to unfold, but it was hindered by the sins of David and of his son Solomon. But on the first day on which all Israelites shall have fulfilled all the prescriptions of the Law, the Messiah will appear, will increase the zeal for the Law, himself the most ardent of all the rabbis, will raise the throne of David more gloriously, will destroy the Roman empire, will make all nations tributary to the Jews, and will restore the whole Sinaitic kingdom of God with all its earthly goods.¹⁰

That this rabbinic messianism differs from the messianic concept of the Old Testament by the whole heaven is evident. Over against the spiritual and universal "kingdom of God" is set a political, material, earthly, national kingdom of the Jews. Since this kingdom is the reward of the legal observance of the individual Israelites, who are already redeemed,¹¹ and since it belongs to the Messiah alone to proclaim the kingdom on the appointed day, the Pharisaic Messiah is not the suffering and dying "Servant of God" for the sins of the human race. Nor is he the "Son of Man" described by Daniel, still less the true "Son of God", but he plays the part of some great rabbi and cares only for earthly things. The Pharisaic Messiah is a mere secular "Son of David", the greatest politico-national king of the Jews.¹²

2. Eschatological or apocalyptic messianism.¹³ Against the rabbinic messianism which pleased most Jews, some set the eschatological or apocalyptic. It is called apocalyptic because it took its origin from certain apocalyptic books written about the age of Christ, the principal of which are: the Book of Henoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Assumption of Moses, the Sibylline Oracles, the Apocalypse or fourth book of Esdras, and the Apocalypse of Baruch. It is called eschatological because it made the Messiah and his kingdom coincide with the last things, i. e. with the end of time and of the world and with the last judgment.

For certain "pessimists", seeing the Romans more and more taking possession of the public affairs of the Jews, despaired of obtaining the establishment of the Davidic-messianic kingdom in this world. Hence, neglecting the other messianic prophecies, they clung only to the prophecy of Daniel concerning the "Son of Man" who was to come at the end of time, to judge the world, and to govern the kingdom of God. They thought, therefore, that this worst of worlds must first be destroyed and another heavenly age created. Once this was done, they said, the Messiah, still kept in heaven, will descend in the clouds upon the new earth, will judge men, and will forthwith establish the kingdom of God.

This eschatological kingdom of God they imagine as wholly politico-national and material. The Messiah will subdue all kingdoms and all kings hostile to the Israelites, but will hand over to the Jews the government of the whole world.¹⁴ All nations will adore the sons of Israel and will be pressed into their harshest servitude.¹⁵ The Jews, however, will enjoy immense riches, unheard-of pleasures of the senses, and perpetual beauty and youth;¹⁶ protected and beatified by the presence of the Messiah.¹⁷

Hence eschatological messianism is politico-national and material without qualification, just as much as rabbinic messianism. It differs from the latter only in this, that it assigns the Messiah and his kingdom to a transcendental world and age. With the Old Testament this messianic eschatology has nothing to do. It indeed snatches up the prophecy of Daniel concerning the "Son of Man", but torn away from the other messianic prophecies.

3. Biblical or prophetic messianism.¹⁸ There were not wanting Jews who retained the messianic concept of the whole Old Testament, expecting already in this world the Messiah, the redeemer of all men, and a religious, universal kingdom of God.

Zechariah exults in that celebrated messianic canticle because the Messiah will procure for the Jews not only holiness, justice, knowledge of God and the remission of sins, but will also enlighten all nations with religion: "That being delivered from the hand of our enemies, we may serve him without fear, in holiness and justice before him ... To give knowledge of salvation to his people unto the remission of their sins. The orient from on high has visited us, to enlighten those [nations] who sit in darkness and in the shadow of death."¹⁹

That Joseph, the spouse of Mary, expected the Messiah as a spiritual Savior is evident from the words spoken to him by the angel: "Joseph, son of David, fear not to take unto thee Mary thy wife: for that which is conceived in her is of the Holy Ghost. And she shall bring forth a son, and thou shalt call his name Jesus: for he shall save his people from their sins."²⁰

Simeon proclaims Jesus, the "Messiah of the Lord",²¹ to be not only the glory of Israel, but also the salvation and light of all nations; nay, he foresees the passion of the Messiah: "My eyes have seen thy salvation [Iahve], which thou hast prepared before the face of all peoples, a light to the revelation of the gentiles and the glory of thy people Israel... Behold, this child is set for the fall and for the resurrection of many in Israel, and for a sign which shall be contradicted, and thy own [Mary's] soul a sword shall pierce."²²

John the precursor professes more clearly the spiritual operation of the Messiah and his vicarious death for sinners. For he announces that Jesus, the founder of the kingdom of heaven,²³ will baptize "in the Holy Ghost and in fire",²⁴ i. e. will confer the spiritual gifts of the messianic kingdom, and that he is "the Lamb of God, who taketh away the sin of the world",²⁵ i. e. a lamb sacred, to be offered to God, and by this oblation to take away the sin of the world.²⁶

The Samaritans, too, expected the Messiah not as politico-national, but as the "Savior of the world".²⁷

Finally, all who searched the Old Testament with a devout and upright heart necessarily repudiated messianism, both rabbinic and eschatological.

Now that the messianic concept as it prevailed before Christ has been explained, it is easy to see that Jesus Himself rejected the rabbinic and eschatological messianism of later Judaism, but accepted and perfected the prophetic messianism of the Old Testament.¹

1. Jesus rejected rabbinic messianism. The older evolutionism maintained that Jesus merely appropriated for himself the messianic ideas commonly bandied about by the rabbis. That this contention is insipid is evident from everything we have said concerning the actual messianic testimony: throughout the whole time of his preaching Jesus most carefully keeps from himself the politico-national messianism of the Pharisees, and at length he is visited with the punishment of the cross because he had constantly turned this messianism away from himself.

2. Jesus rejected eschatological messianism. On the contrary, many modern rationalists think that Jesus subscribed to eschatological messianism.¹ But they are refuted by their own confession that Jesus shrank from rabbinic messianism. For we have proved that eschatological messianism almost coincides with the rabbinic, in that both dream of the Messiah as a political king and of a national and material kingdom of God. Since Jesus repudiates these, by that very fact he repudiates eschatological messianism as well.

Messianic eschatology differs from the theology of the rabbis, as we have seen, only in the properly eschatological element, i.e., in this, that the apocalyptic writers maintain that the Messiah and his kingdom will not exist in this age and worst of worlds, but that, this world having been destroyed, he will at length come as judge in a transcendental age and world. Yet that this eschatological element was foreign to Jesus escapes no one.

For although Jesus professes himself to be also the future judge of the world, nevertheless he wishes to be, and to be acknowledged as, the Messiah already in this age and world.

To John the Baptist, who asks whether Jesus is the Messiah that is to come, he answers that the Messiah is already present in himself, indeed that he has proved himself to be the present Messiah by his works.²

At Caesarea Philippi he praises and rewards Peter's confession: "Thou art the Messiah," and thus acknowledges that even now, in the present life and time, he is the Messiah.³

The Samaritan woman, expecting a Messiah by no means eschatological, says: "I know that the Messiah cometh; when therefore he is come, he will tell us all things."⁴ To her Jesus: "I am he, that speak with thee." Finally he elicits from the Samaritans the confession: "For we ourselves have heard and know that this is indeed the Saviour of the world."⁵

The Jews challenge Jesus: "How long dost thou hold our soul in suspense? If thou art the Messiah, tell us plainly." Jesus answered them by appealing to the messianic works already wrought by himself: "I speak to you, and you believe not. The works that I do in the name of my Father, these bear witness of me."⁶

Caiaphas interrogates him: "Art thou the Messiah, the Son of the blessed God?" But Jesus said to him: "I am." The high priest urges: "I adjure thee by the living God, that thou tell us whether thou art the Messiah, the Son of God." Jesus says to him: "Thou hast said it." But they all said: "Thou art then the Son of God?" He said: "You say that I am. And you shall see the Son of man sitting at the right hand of the power of God, and coming with the clouds of heaven."⁷

Pilate asks: "Art thou the king of the Jews?" i.e., the king Messiah. But Jesus, answering, said: "Thou sayest that I am a king. For this was I born, and for this came I into the world, that I should bear witness to the truth."⁸

Therefore Jesus wills to be the Messiah already in the present life and world, although messianic glory will shine most brightly in the judgment and the future age.

The same holds of the messianic kingdom of Jesus. According to the Gospels the kingdom of God will indeed be perfect and complete only in another world. At the last judgment, at length, Jesus will say to his elect: "Come, ye blessed of my Father, possess the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world."⁹ "Then shall the just shine as the sun in the kingdom of their Father."¹⁰

Notwithstanding this, the kingdom of God begins and develops already in this world. Jesus at once announces that the kingdom of God has drawn near,¹¹ and then that it has come: "The kingdom of God is come upon you."¹² "Behold, the kingdom of God is within you."¹³ Gradually, throughout all Galilee and Judea, he preaches "the gospel of the kingdom of God,"¹⁴ and performs "the mystery of the kingdom of God"¹⁵ works by which the present kingdom of God is proved and established,¹⁶ while the kingdom of Satan is overthrown.¹⁷ He compels all, leaving behind every impediment, to seek the kingdom of God.¹⁸ He spends his whole life, and that of his disciples as well, that the kingdom of God may advance more and more. Hence by word and deed he excludes the apocalyptic eschatology which maintains that the kingdom of God will at length, at the last judgment and in the future world, fall like lightning from heaven. What has been said thus far is confirmed by what follows, in which Jesus positively defines his kingdom and his person.