Palladium theologicum, Tomus quintus: De virtutibus

HERE there would be question of the government of Princes, on which D. Thomas interweaves a prolix little work, which is the twentieth.

REPEAT moreover the subjective parts of prudence, numbered above.

Aristotle indeed asserts, 3. Eth. cap. 3., that Prudence is the proper virtue of the Prince. The reason is, because to prudence belongs to govern and to command; and therefore where the special character of government and of command is found in human acts, there also the special character of prudence is found. Now it is manifest that in him who not only governs himself, but also a perfect community, or a kingdom, there is found the perfect character of government. For the more universal a government is, extending itself to more things and attaining a further end, the more perfect it is; and therefore to the King, to whom it belongs to govern a city or a kingdom, prudence belongs by a special character, and indeed the most perfect one.

To this there corresponds the Political prudence in subjects, that they be moved and governed; for since they are not governed and moved in the manner of irrational creatures — nay, they move themselves by free will — therefore there is required in them a certain rectitude of government, by which they direct themselves to obeying those who rule; and to this pertains that species of prudence which is called Political, as D. Thomas says in article 3.

FROM these however differs another prudence, which is called Oeconomical, and is midway between the prudence of princes and of individual persons; for it is ordered to the government of the household, which is a part of the city.

THAT however I may come nearer: the fourth subjective species of governing Prudence is the Military, as is intimated Proverb. 24. The reason is, because things done according to art and reason ought to be conformable to those that are according to nature, which were instituted by the divine reason. Now nature tends to two things. First indeed to governing each thing in itself; second truly to resisting external assailants and corruptive agents. Wherefore it gave to animals not only the concupiscible power, by which they are moved to those things that are accommodated to their salvation, but also the irascible power, by which the animal resists assaults. Wherefore also in those things that are according to reason there must be not only Political prudence, by which those things are ordered that pertain to the common good, but also Military prudence, by which the assaults of enemies are repelled.

BOTH indeed shine forth in the celestial Potestates, as D. Bonavent. teaches; for they are ordered both to governing the inferiors subordinated to the Dominations, and especially to blunting the assaults of the infernal enemies, as St. Dionysius teaches de caelesti Hierarchia, cit. whence he defines the celestial Potestates thus, in the Seraphic Doctor.

THE designation of the holy Potestates teaches a powerful, and well-adorned, and undistorted ordination with regard to divine receptions, not precipitating the inferior things tyrannically by sheer command, but mightily reducing them to the divine; and assimilating them, as far as is lawful, to the potent causal power; and converting the inferior things to God, who is the prince of all power, according to the hierarchical disposition, making the divine and luminous power resplendent in the inferior things. Whence the Angels of that order restrain and check all who impede the hierarchical ordination of prelation and subjection. Whence they do not permit the power of prelation to be contemned by subjects, and they do not allow subjects to be oppressed by violence by iniquitous lords; nay, they meet every injury of these and of those most powerfully, and resist it.

¶ NOW Princes and Kings ought to contemplate the holy and celestial potestates, namely that they rule wisely, live in an orderly manner, and mightily repress and vindicate evil, spare the innocent, and not permit injury to be done to wretched persons; so that they also do not grow proud of the power they have received, but rather condescend to the humble.

¶ THEREFORE secular Power will be well ordered, disposed in the similitude of the celestial potestates, if those placed in power be wise, that is, proceeding in each matter not according to the impulse of will, but according to the helm of reason, as is said Proverb. 1. The wise man, hearing, will be wiser, and the understanding man will possess governments. Hence Solomon at the beginning of his reign asked for wisdom, saying 3. Reg. 3. Thou, O God, hast made me to reign in place of my father, and I am a little child, ignorant of my going out and my coming in. Give therefore to thy servant an understanding heart, that he may be able to judge thy people, and discern between good and evil. For as in spiritual jurisdiction, so neither in temporal ought anything to be done without wisdom and discretion. Hence it is commanded Deuter. 17. When the King shall sit on the throne of his kingdom, he shall cause the Deuteronomy to be written out for himself, etc. Hence men of advanced age, and old men, were wont to be chosen as Princes and as kings, because wisdom is found not in children, but in the aged, who compose many experiences from the memory of things past, whence prudence is perfected, as I said. Hence Roboam lost the kingdom 3. Reg. 12. because, having left the counsel of the elders, he yielded to the counsel of the young. Wherefore it is said Eccles. 10. Woe to thee, O land, whose king is a child.

¶ THEN they will be like the celestial potestates if, adorned in morals, they show to subjects a good and innocent life. For nothing profits to be clothed in purple, to be marked with the diadem, to shine with glittering gems, and to be sordid in disordered morals; hence the Potestates are said to have received from the Lord a well-ordered and undistorted power. For as the Poet says:

Virtue is not sought from without. He who abounds in morals within needs nothing outward; Nobility alone is that which adorns the soul with morals.

¶ THEREFORE the Lord does not attend in potestates to the nobility of the world or of the flesh, or to the comeliness of body or of dress, but to the nobility of morals and the honesty of conscience; and this is what is said primo Reg. 16. Do not look on his countenance, nor on the height of his stature; because I have rejected him; nor do I judge according to the look of man.

¶ ALSO they are like the celestial Potestates who, animated by love of justice, pursue all malice in the reprobate, and those disturbing the public peace, as is said of Iuda, 1. Machab. 3. He persecuted the wicked, searching out those who troubled the people, etc. For the power of Kings is among men ordained by the Lord, that by their fear the audacity of the wicked be restrained, which would so prevail that, did not the public power resist, even human society would be utterly dissipated. Hence Exodi 18. Choose for thyself men of power. And Psalm. 44. Upon thy thigh, O most mighty one.

¶ ALSO they imitate the celestial Potestates who govern subjects, and guard the innocent, not with tyrannical cruelty, but rather with human, nay Angelic benignity. Hence it is said Esther. 12. When I commanded over many nations, and had subdued the whole world to my dominion, I would not abuse the greatness of my power, but to govern my subjects with clemency and lenity, that passing their life without terror they might enjoy the peace they desired.

¶ LIKEWISE Princes and Kings are compared to the Potestates if they do not grow proud of power. Nay, the more they excel the rest, the more they should humble themselves before every one, as Eccles. 3 admonishes: The greater thou art, the more humble thyself, etc. As the Son of God, the supreme power, Virtue, and arm of the Father, emptying himself, was made subject to all, and redeemed the world by meekness; so they are warned Psalm. 146. He shall not have his will in the strength of the horse. Therefore he is most powerful who, trusting in God, distrusts himself. Whence observe that Kings and Leaders have always triumphed more by the aid of God than by arms; and that those who trusted most in the strength of their armies were scattered. Therefore a great act of prudence is to provide for oneself before God, and afterwards before men, and not to wish that the power over the whole earth be in the hand of God, as is said Eccl. 10.

¶ SIMILARLY Princes are likened to the supernal potestates, procuring the peace of the whole earth, which indeed would not be preserved unless the Royal potestates endeavored it, as the Machabaei acknowledged, Lib. 2. cap. 4. Therefore the Princes ought to remember that they carry the sword, that they may crush the potestates that rise up against, and are rebellious to, the Church, which fear their power, as is said Rom. 13.

¶ SIMILARLY, as the celestial potestates make the luminous power of God resplendent in the inferior things, as St. Dionysius says; so that the truth, goodness, and power which shines forth in them may, through the mediation of the superior angels, transfulge into the lower ones, who are thereby reduced to like participations of grace and glory: so Princes should, now by severity and justice, now by clemency and benignity, lead the simple people back to the knowledge of God, and the powerful to the inviolable observance of the laws of divine justice. Hence it is said Eccles. 44. Those ruling in their potestates, men endowed with great virtue and prudence. For thus they ought prudently to preside, that by the light of their virtues they may shine forth before all their subjects, more than they superintend by power. As God made the Sun into the power of the Day, and the Moon into the power of the Night. Psalm. 135. So, as the Sun presides over the Day with a resplendent and beneficent light, dissipating the darkness, drawing upward the depraved humors, that they may be resolved into rains and dews fertilizing the earth, aiding all inferior causes toward their effects, as a universal cause; so Princes, the darkness of vices having been put to flight, should scatter, illuminate, warm, kindle, and inflame virtues everywhere, terrifying the animals inimical to the light. Hence Proverb. 19. As the roaring of the lion, so also the anger of the king; and as the dew upon the herb, so his cheerfulness. Thus will they be worthy that every soul be subject to the higher potestates, as is said Rom. 13. Whence Peter also says, prima, cap. 2. obey your lords, etc., whether to the King as to the preeminent one, etc.

¶ ANOTHER treatise the Saintly Doctor has on the government of prelates, which is graced with this title: De sex alis Seraphim. For since the Seraphim preeminate among the Angels, therefore they are likened to the prelates of the Church. But since these appeared adorned with six wings, Isa. VI. Apoc. IV. Now the senary number is perfect, consisting of its aliquot parts; therefore he labors to expound the virtues of the Antistes from this winged number, that by them they may fly to the mark.

THEREFORE the FIRST Wing of the Rector is the zeal of justice, whereby he cannot without murmuring tolerate any evil whatsoever. For anyone is to be esteemed so much the better, the more he detests evil and pursues good: not only by way of disposition, so as not to be willing to desert the sweetness of his own quiet, after the manner of the Fig tree of Iudit. IX. which was unwilling to forgo its sweetness so as to preside over the trees; but such men ought to be such that, forgetful even of their own quiet, they take no delight in the profits of their own salvation, unless they promote others to salvation, as Paulus. prima Cor. XIII. seeketh not the things that are his own, but those that are Jesus Christ's. With this zeal indeed they ought to burn above all who bear the person of Christ; for of Christ it is said Psalm. XLIV. Thou hast loved justice, and hated iniquity; therefore God, thy God, hath anointed thee with the oil of joy. This justice is the observance of all those things that are necessary to salvation, as are the precepts of Charitas, of the Decalogue, and the rest, which flow from the eternal law; as the virtues, humility, chastity, mercy. Then also those which are constituted by human law in the law of the Church, as the rites of the Sacraments and of the rest, with the positives belonging to the law that are adjoined.¹

THESE however let them take care to observe both in themselves and in others, but in due order, lest they be of those of whom Lucae XI. you pay tithe of mint, and rue, and leave the things that are weightier, as certain Praelati, who are more inflamed for one inclination in the choir than for grave transgressions; more for one rubric neglected than for a scandal.

THEY ought moreover diligently to offer remedies rather for public sins; especially that the study of prayer, which is necessary, be preserved.

EVERY Religion is arid (says D. Bonavent.) that is not fattened with this oil. Unstable is the structure of good works which is not compacted by the frequency of devout prayer, like a wall of stones without cement. In every religion, where the fervor of prayer has grown tepid, the fabric of the other virtues also begins to fail, and to approach ruin; and the lamps of the foolish virgins, without oil, are extinguished, as is said Matth. XXV.

THEN there is to be guarded against negligence of exterior discipline, lest anything be left uncorrected or unpunished, lest he be condemned with Heli primo Reg. IV. This mark, for discerning laudable religion from the relaxed one, the Saintly Doctor offers: not that no one sinning be found in the reformed religions, but that no one be allowed to sin with impunity, and the approaches to sinning be studiously precluded, and the incorrigible and the other infecters be eliminated, and the good be cherished and loved, that they may persevere. For since depravity has been found even in the convent of Angels and the college of Apostles, although they lived under the mastership of God; what order of good men in this life will arrogate to itself that no sin be found in it?

THEREFORE the Saintly Doctor concludes, the Prelate will render a heavy account to God; First for his own non-observance and omission of office, Sap. VI. When you were ministers of his kingdom, you judged not rightly, you kept not the law of justice, nor walked according to the will of God. Horribly, and speedily shall things appear to you: for the judgment shall be most hard on those who preside. Second, for the sins of the subjects, which they could and ought to have corrected and forestalled, and did not correct or forestall. Hence it is said Ezech. XXXIII. If thou hadst not spoken, to keep the wicked from his way: the wicked himself shall die in his iniquity, but his blood I will require at thy hand. Which exposition the Saintly Doctor learned from the Seraphic P. Francisco. Third, they will render an account for the abuse of power for their own profit and honor. Hence Matth. XXV. Take away the talent from him, and cast the unprofitable servant out.

THE SECOND Wing of the Antistites is Pietas, that as the Charitas of God inflames him to the zeal of justice, so fraternal love may form him to piety; for although to vices there is due the striking rod, yet to infirmity there is necessary the sustaining staff; of these Psalm. XXII. Thy rod, and thy staff, they have comforted me. The Praelati moreover ought to be prudent spiritual physicians, that they may discern the various infirmities, and have remedies apt for all. Nor let them be of those of whom Psal. LXVIII. For whom thou hast struck, they have persecuted. And so let them flourish in piety, lest he who is cast off utterly perish, as the prudent Tecuitis says II. Reg.; but as is said primo Reg. XXIII. let them be able to have the subjects say: Blessed be you of the Lord, for you have had compassion on my case.

NEITHER say (says the Saintly Doctor.) Worthily is help given to those of whom there is hope of convalescence; but in those of whom it is not presumed that they will ever recover, the expenses are uselessly consumed; for mercy is exhibited on account of the merit of Charitas, and not on account of its own utility; therefore it behooves the Pontiff to experience infirmities, that he may be able to be compassionate, as is said Heb. IV.

ADMONISHES moreover the Saintly Doctor that in his mind regarding the infirm there are three kinds. The first are those who from an affect of devotion, prone to scandals, easily fall, as the Apostle says, prima Cor. XI. Among you many are infirm. The second, who, although devout, yet are either easily moved to impatience by correction, or despair through diffidence. The third are all the imperfect, who, agitated by the passions, waver. Of these, he says, the occasions of scandal are to be removed, the opportunities of sinning, lest they see or hear what would weaken them; nor let them be allowed to wander outside the house. For Dina Genes. XXXIII. having gone out of the house, was corrupted. These are to be removed by examples, and exhortations, nor let them be provoked to anger, as is said Coloss. III. Fathers, provoke not your children to indignation, that they become not pusillanimous. The Praelati ought to be compassionate with all these, as Iacob said XXXIII. Thou knowest that I have little children, tender, and the sheep and cows with young with me, which, if I make them labor more in walking, all the flocks will die in one day. Hence Paulus prima Thessal. II. We became little ones in the midst of you, as if a nurse cherish her sons, which doubtless means: thus humbly and piously was I gentle with you, condescending to your tenderness and imperfection.

ON THE CONTRARY the Lord complains of the hard pastors, Ezech. XXXIII. That which was infirm you have not strengthened, and that which was sick you have not healed, and that which was broken you have not bound up, and that which was lost you have not sought, etc. but you ruled them with harshness, and with power. Hence Bernardus, sermone XXIII. in Cant. Why do you weigh down your yoke, when you behold the disciples, whose yoke you ought rather to carry? Lay aside the burdens, bring forth the udders, milk the breasts, let them rest. And if at times severity be needed, let it be paternal, not tyrannical, according to that Num. XI. Bear them in thy bosom, as the woman bears her infant, and carry them into the land for which I swore, etc.

THE THIRD Wing of the Antistites is patience, and constant longanimity; for as the covering of the tabernacle received the rains, the winds, and the dusts, that the interior things might remain clean; so the Prelate ought to receive the tempests, that he may preserve the interior things, and, like the Hen for her chicks, expose himself to the Kite. For three reasons however is patience necessary to them: First, on account of the various occupations pressing in. On account of this also Moses was most wretched Deuter. 1. I am not able alone to sustain your affairs, etc. Second, on account of the slow progress of those for whom he labors; wherefore Psalm. 118. My zeal hath made me to languish. Third, on account of the ingratitude of those for whom he labors, who, never contented, always complain.

WITH these, and other adversities, by which he is assailed, let the prudent man oppose himself with the triple shield of patience. First, that he answer maturely, and benignly, each thing, and repress the impulse of fervor, lest he show impatience by voice, or countenance. For then he more calms the impatient, as Iudic. 8. Gedeon checked the quarrelers; for, as the Wise man witnesses: A mild answer breaks wrath; a hard word stirs up fury. Second, let him strive to be peaceable in the house, that he neither avenge himself of the injuries inflicted, nor hate them in his heart, but imitate the supernal Father: Who is benign over the ungrateful, and the evil. Third, that he not on that account less promptly apply himself to his office, as is said 2. Paral. 15. Be you therefore comforted; and let not your hands be weakened.

THE FOURTH Wing is the exemplary life. For he himself ought to be the norm of living, that what he teaches in words he may show in the figures of his actions, as one who teaches Geometry describes the demonstrations of the figures on the tablets, that what he says may be better grasped. Thus of Christ it is said, Act. 1. Jesus began to do, and to teach, and Ioan. 13. I have given you an example, and Iudic. 7. Gedeon says What you shall see me do, that do.

ALTHOUGH however the rector ought to precede the subjects in all examples of the virtues; yet especially in these three: in the conformity, namely, of common observance; in the humility of meekness; and in the honesty of maturity. Whence ad Titum 2. In all things show thyself an example of good works, in doctrine, in integrity, in gravity, etc.

LET him observe a common life with others in food, clothing, and labor, that he be not given to banquets and drinkings, nor be unlike in habit to those with whom is his common profession: he ought to become all things to all men, that he may make all men saved, as is said 2. Cor. 9. See the Saintly Doctor.

THE FIFTH Wing of the Praelati is Prudence, and circumspect discretion. This is the chief one, as the Council of Trent teaches, which the Saintly Doctor pursues at length cap. 7. Therefore also Solomon 3. Reg. 3. having from God the option of asking whatsoever he wished, asked for this: Give therefore, Lord, to thy servant an understanding heart, that he may be able to judge thy people, and discern between good, and evil. And Sap. 6. To you therefore, O Kings, are these my words, that you may learn wisdom, and not fall. And Psalm. 2. And now, O Kings, understand; be instructed, you that judge the earth. For the Rector is the eye of the people, and D. Bernardus, sermone 49. in Cant. Take away discretion, and virtue will be a vice. On this account, Levit. 2. in every thy oblation thou shalt offer salt. See the Saintly Doctor, treating these wondrously differently: From the Rational of the ancient Pontiff, and from the four orders of gems, the rector has four things necessary to observe. First, how he may govern the subjects in the due state, that they may profit by his good example. Second, how he may raise up the fallen, and correct the straying. Third, in what manner he may dispose the exterior affairs. Fourth, how he may guard and conduct himself in these.

IN each order of stones there were three, signifying three things pertaining to each of the aforesaid, that the burdens of whomever may be aptly, and gently disposed, as is said Num. 4. Aaron, and his sons shall go in; they also shall dispose the burdens of each one.

NOW there is a threefold observance expressed in those triple gems.

THE FIRST, concerning those things that are of the necessity of salvation, according to the profession of each one.

THE SECOND, concerning those things that respect the exercise of a higher, singular perfection: namely the patience to be admitted, the stupendous humility, the arduous Charitas, the eminent sobriety, etc. to which the Rector ought to allure sweetly. Therefore let him hold this gem in his breast, that he may direct the subjects, animated to eminent virtue.

THE THIRD are those which are instituted for the attainment of both, as silence, fasts, etc. In these let the Prelate conduct himself discretely, even by dispensing, if it be necessary.

FOR the correction of the fallen, Prudence is necessary, as is said Galat. 6. If a man be overtaken in any fault, you who are spiritual, instruct such a one in the spirit of lenity, supporting him, as Christ tolerated Iudam, and as Matth. 13. the zizania are left untouched until the harvest. But they are to be cut off, when they bring perdition, as is said Galat. 5. prima Cor 5. secunda Cor. 7. Lucae 13. and in Numer. 5. lepers are permitted apart; yet he warns with that Eccles. 32. Do all things with counsel, and after the deed you will not repent.

IN the affairs, some it is expedient that the Prelate accomplish by himself, others through others; thus Christ committed the purses to Iudas, and was unwilling to divide the goods between two brothers; thus the Apostles said, Actorum 6. It is not equal that we leave the word of God, and serve tables, etc.

THEREFORE he ought to preside as the head, and share out motion, and sense with the members, and so act, as about to render an account for the subjects, Heb. 15.

SUPERFLUOUS affairs however it is expedient to cut off, as is said Ecclesiastici 11. Son, let not thy acts be many, etc.

ABOVE all the Rector ought to look around upon himself. For what does it profit a man, if he save others, and harm his own soul? Matth. 16.

THEREFORE let him always keep his conscience clean, that he will nothing, act nothing, or permit nothing illicit, and indecent, contrary to his profession, in which sin, or scandal be detected, etc. See the Seraphicum cap. 7. setting forth wondrous things.

ANOTHER circumspection is concerned with exterior morals; for since he desires to live as an example for many, he needs great discretion; lest he be of those of whom Ezech. 34. But you ruled them with harshness, and with power, and my sheep were scattered. And Eccles. 4. Be not as a lion in thy house, etc. Let him rather imitate the meekness of Christ.

FINALLY let the circumspection itself look around upon itself, lest it be as the eye that sees others, not itself, namely that it savor not more than it ought, nor be wise to itself. Whence Prou. 26. Have you seen a man wise in his own eyes? the fool shall have more hope than he. Therefore he ought to consult others; for thus Moses also, to whom God spoke face to face, consulted his father-in-law Exodi 18. and the Apostle, who had been rapt to the third heaven, consulted the other Apostles. But let him avoid the counsels of flatterers, as is said Isa. 3. and of detractors, as is said. Esth. 16.

THE SIXTH Wing of the Praelati is devotion; for by this the zeal of justice is kindled, piety is fostered, patience is strengthened, the good example is founded, discretion is clarified. This is the unction of the Spirit, teaching all things 1. Ioan. 2. See the Saintly Doctor, in the cited chapter de sex alis Seraphim, ala 5.