De reductione artium ad theologiam

OF THE SERAPHIC DOCTOR

OF SAINT BONAVENTURE

OPUSCULE

ON

THE REDUCTION OF THE ARTS TO THEOLOGY

1. Every good gift and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of lights, James in the first chapter of his Epistle¹. In this word, the origin of every illumination is touched upon, and at the same time it intimates the liberal emanation of manifold light from that fontal light. Although every illumination of cognition is internal, we can nevertheless reasonably distinguish, so as to say that there is an exterior light, namely, the light of mechanical art; a lower light, namely, the light of sensible cognition; an interior light, namely, the light of philosophical cognition; and an upper light, namely, the light of grace and sacred Scripture. The first light illuminates with respect to the artificial figure, the second with respect to the natural form, the third with respect to intellectual truth, and the fourth and last with respect to saving truth.

2. Therefore, the first light, which illuminates toward artificial figures, which are, as it were, external and were discovered to remedy the body's need, is called the light of mechanical art². Since it is in a certain way servile and degenerates from philosophical cognition, it can rightly be called exterior. And it is sevenfold according to the seven mechanical arts, which Hugo assigns in the Didascalicon³, namely, wool-working, armor-making, agriculture, hunting, navigation, medicine, and theatrical art. — Their sufficiency is understood as follows. Since every mechanical art is either for solace or for advantage; or else for removing sadness or need; or else it benefits or delights, according to that of Horace⁴:

Poets wish either to benefit or to delight.

And again:

He has won every vote who has mixed the useful with the pleasant.

If it is for solace and delight, then it is theatrical art, which is the art of games and contains every mode of playing, whether in songs, on instruments, in representations, or in bodily gestures⁵. — But if it is ordered to utility or profit according to the exterior man, this can be either with respect to covering, or with respect to food, or with respect to an aid to both. — If with respect to covering, this is either from a soft and smooth material, and so it is wool-working; or from a hard and strong material, and so it is armor-making or the smith's art, which contains every fabricated piece of armor⁶ whether from iron, from any metal whatever, from stone, or from wood.

But if it assists with respect to food, this can be in two ways: for we are nourished by vegetable things or by sensible things. If with respect to vegetable things, then it is agriculture; if with respect to sensible things, then it is hunting.

— Or otherwise: if it assists with respect to food, this can be in two ways: either it assists with respect to the generation and multiplication of foods, and then it is agriculture; or with respect to the manifold ⁷ preparation of food, and so it is hunting, which contains every kind of preparing foods, drinks, and flavors, which pertains to bakers, cooks, and innkeepers. It is named from one part alone on account of a certain excellence and courtliness ⁸.

But if it is an aid to both, this is in two ways: either by supplying a defect, and so it is navigation, under which is included all commerce, whether pertaining to covering or to food; or by removing an impediment and harm, and so it is medicine, whether it consists in the preparation of electuaries, potions, ointments, the treatment of wounds, or the cutting of limbs, as in surgery. — But theatrical art is unique ⁹. And thus its sufficiency is clear.

3. The second light, which illuminates us for apprehending natural forms, is the light of sensitive cognition, which is rightly called lower, because sensitive cognition begins from what is lower and takes place through the benefit of bodily light. And this is fivefold according to the five senses. — Augustine takes its sufficiency according to the nature of the light of the elements in On Genesis Literally¹⁰ in this way: for the light—that is, the light by which corporeal things are distinguished—is either in the eminence of its own proper nature and a certain purity, and so it is the sense of sight; or it is mixed with air, and so it is hearing; with vapor, and so it is smell; with moisture, and so it is taste; or with the coarseness of earth, and so it is touch. For the sensitive spirit has the nature of light, whence it is vigorous in the nerves, whose nature is clear and permeable; and in these five senses it is multiplied according to greater and lesser purification. Therefore, since there are five simple bodies of the world, namely the four elements and the fifth essence¹¹, so that man could perceive all bodily forms, he has five senses corresponding to them; because no apprehension occurs except through some likeness and conformity of organ and object, since sense is a determinate nature. There is also another way of taking the sufficiency of the senses¹², but Augustine approves this one, and it seems reasonable, because correspondences on the part of the organ, medium, and object all concur simultaneously in this sufficiency.

4. The third light, which illuminates for scrutinizing intelligible truths, is the light of philosophical cognition, which is therefore called lower, because it investigates interior and hidden causes, and this through the principles of the sciences and of natural truth, which are naturally implanted in man¹³. And this is tripled into the rational, natural, and moral. — Its sufficiency can be taken in this way. For there is truth of words, truth of things, and truth of morals. The rational considers the truth of words, the natural the truth of things, and the moral the truth of morals. — Or otherwise: just as in the supreme God one considers the account of the efficient, formal or exemplary, and final cause, because “he is the cause of subsisting, the reason of understanding, and the order of living¹⁴”; so in the very illumination of philosophy, since it illuminates either for knowing the causes of being, and so it is physics; or the reasons of understanding, and so it is logic; or the order of living, and so it is moral or practical philosophy. — In a third way: because the light of philosophical cognition illuminates the intellective power itself; but this can be in three ways: either insofar as it rules the motive power, and so it is moral; or insofar as it rules itself, and so it is natural; or insofar as it rules the interpretive power, and so it is linguistic; so that man is illuminated to the truth of life, to the truth of science, and to the truth of doctrine¹⁵.

And since one can express through speech what one has within oneself in three ways, namely in order to make known the concept of one's mind, or in order to move more strongly to belief, or in order to move to love or hatred: therefore linguistic or rational philosophy is tripled, namely into grammar, logic, and rhetoric; of which the first is for expressing, the second for teaching, and the third for moving. The first regards reason as apprehensive; the second as judicative; the third as motive. And because reason apprehends through well-formed speech, judges through true speech, and moves through ornate speech, hence this threefold science considers these three properties¹⁶ concerning speech.

Again, since our intellect must be directed in judging according to formal accounts, and these can be considered in three ways: either in comparison with matter, and so they are called formal accounts; or in comparison with the soul, and so they are intellectual; or in comparison with divine wisdom, and so they are ideal: therefore natural philosophy is tripled into physics properly so called, mathematics, and metaphysics¹⁷; so that physical consideration is concerned with the generation and corruption of things according to natural powers and seminal reasons; mathematics with the consideration of abstractable forms according to intelligible reasons; metaphysics with the knowledge of all beings, which reduces them to one first principle, from which they proceeded according to ideal reasons, or to God insofar as he is principle, end, and exemplar; although among metaphysicians there was some controversy concerning such ideal reasons¹⁸.

Finally, since the governance of the motive power must be considered in three respects, namely with respect to one's own life, with respect to the family, and with respect to the subject multitude; therefore moral philosophy is tripled, namely into monastic, economic, and political philosophy, which are distinguished according to the aforesaid threefold mode, as appears from the names themselves¹⁹.

5. But the fourth light, which illuminates toward saving truth, is the light of Sacred Scripture, which is therefore called higher, because it leads to higher things by manifesting what is above reason, and also because it descends not through discovery but through inspiration from the Father of lights²⁰. Although it is one according to the literal understanding, it is nevertheless threefold according to the mystical and spiritual sense. For in all the books of Sacred Scripture, besides the literal sense, which the words outwardly sound, a threefold spiritual sense is conceived, namely the allegorical, by which we are taught what is to be believed concerning divinity and humanity; the moral, by which we are taught how one is to live; and the anagogical, by which we are taught how one is to adhere to God²¹. Hence all Sacred Scripture teaches these three things, namely Christ's eternal generation and incarnation, the order of living, and the union of God and soul. The first regards faith, the second morals, and the third the end of both. With respect to the first, the study of doctors must labor; with respect to the second, the study of preachers; with respect to the third, the study of contemplatives. Augustine teaches the first above all, Gregory teaches the second above all, and Dionysius teaches the third — Anselm follows Augustine, Bernard follows Gregory, Richard follows Dionysius, because Anselm excels in reasoning, Bernard in preaching, and Richard in contemplation — but Hugh follows all these²².

6. From the foregoing it is gathered that although, according to the primary division, the light descending from above is fourfold, nevertheless there are six of its differences: namely, the light of sacred Scripture, the light of sensory cognition, the light of mechanical art, the light of rational philosophy, the light of natural philosophy, and the light of moral philosophy. And therefore there are six illuminations in this life, and they have an evening, because all knowledge will be destroyed ²³; and therefore the seventh day of rest succeeds them, which has no evening, namely, the illumination of glory.

7. Hence these six illuminations can very aptly ²⁴ be reduced to the senary of formations or illuminations in which the world was made, so that knowledge of sacred Scripture corresponds to the first formation, namely, the formation of light; and so onward in order. — And just as all those had their origin from one light, so all these cognitions are ordered to the knowledge of sacred Scripture, are enclosed in it and perfected in it, and through it are ordered to eternal illumination. Hence all our knowledge ought to have its state in the knowledge of sacred Scripture, and especially as regards the understanding of anagogy, through which illumination is referred to God, from whom it had its origin. And therefore there the circle is completed, the senary is completed ²⁵, and therefore the state of rest.

8. Let us see, therefore, how the other illuminations of the cognitions are to be reduced to the light of sacred Scripture.

And first let us see in the illumination of sensory cognition, which is wholly concerned with knowledge of sensible things, where three things are to be considered: the medium of knowing, the exercise of knowing, and the delight of knowing ²⁶. — If we consider the medium of knowing, we shall behold there the Word eternally generated and incarnate in time. For no sensible thing moves the cognitive power except through a likeness that proceeds from the object, as offspring from a parent; and this is generally, really, or exemplarily necessary in every sense. But that likeness does not bring the act of sensing to completion unless it is united with the organ and its power; and when it is united, a new perception comes about, and through that perception there is a reduction to the object by means of that likeness. And although the object is not always sensed, nevertheless, insofar as it is in itself, it always generates a likeness when it is in its completion. — In this way also understand that from the supreme mind, which is knowable through the inner senses of our mind, there eternally emanated a likeness, an image, and an offspring; and later, when the fullness of time came ²⁷, he was united to mind and flesh and assumed the form of man, which had never existed before; and through him all our minds are reduced to God, for they receive that likeness of the Father by faith in the heart.

9. But if we consider the exercise of the senses, we shall behold there the order of living. For each sense exercises itself with regard to its proper object, avoids what is harmful to it, and does not appropriate what belongs to another. — In this way, then, the sense of the heart lives in an orderly manner when it exercises itself toward that for which it exists, against negligence; when it avoids what is harmful to it, against concupiscence; and when it does not appropriate what belongs to another, against pride. For every disorder arises either from negligence, or from concupiscence, or from pride ²⁸. For he lives in an orderly manner who lives prudently, temperately, and obediently, so that he avoids negligence in what is to be done, concupiscence in desirable things, and pride in things of excellence.

10. But if we consider delight, we shall behold the union of God and the soul. For every sense seeks its fitting sensible object with desire, finds it with joy, and returns to it without weariness, because the eye is not satisfied with seeing, nor is the ear filled with hearing ²⁹. — In this way also the sense of our heart ought to seek with desire, find with joy, and repeat without ceasing whatever is beautiful, harmonious, fragrant, sweet, or soothing. — Behold how divine wisdom is secretly contained in sensory cognition, and how marvelous is the contemplation of the five spiritual senses according to their conformity with the bodily senses.

11. In this way it is also possible to find, in the illumination of ³⁰ mechanical art, whose entire intention is concerned with the production of artificial things, three things to behold, namely, the generation and incarnation of the Word, the order of living, and the covenant between God and the soul. And this is so if we consider procession, effect, and fruit; or, in another way, the art of working, the quality of the artificial work produced, and the usefulness of the fruit elicited.

12. If we consider procession, we shall see that an artificial effect proceeds from the artist through a likeness existing in the mind; by means of it the artist conceives before he produces, and then produces as he has conceived ³¹. But the artist produces externally a work assimilated to the inner exemplar insofar as he can do so as well as possible; and if he could produce an effect that loved and knew him, he certainly would; and if that effect knew its maker, this would be through the likeness according to which it proceeded from the artist; and if it had the eyes of cognition darkened so that it could not rise above itself, then, in order that it might be led to knowledge of its maker, it would be necessary that the likeness through which the effect had been produced should descend to that nature which could be grasped and known by it ³². — In this way understand that no creature proceeded from the supreme Artisan except through the eternal Word, “in whom he disposed all things³³,” and through whom he produced not only creatures having the character of a vestige, but also of an image, so that they might be assimilated to him through knowledge and love. And since, through sin, the rational creature had its eye of contemplation darkened, it was most fitting that the eternal and invisible should become visible and assume flesh, in order to lead us back to the Father. And this is what is said in the fourteenth chapter of John ³⁴: No one comes to the Father except through me; and in Matthew 11: No one knows the Father except the Son, and he to whom the Son wills to reveal him. And therefore it is said: The Word became flesh. Considering, then, the illumination of mechanical art with respect to the procession of the work, we shall behold there the Word generated and incarnate, that is, the divinity and humanity and the integrity of the entire faith ³⁵.

13. But if we consider effect, we shall behold the order of living. For every artist intends to produce a work that is beautiful, useful, and stable; and a work is then dear and acceptable when it has these three conditions. — Corresponding to these three, three things must be found in the order of living, namely, “to know, to will, and to act unchangeably or perseveringly” ³⁶. Knowledge makes the work beautiful, will makes it useful, and perseverance makes it stable. The first is in the rational power, the second in the concupiscible, and the third in the irascible.

14. If we consider fruit, we shall find the union of God and the soul. For every artist who makes some work makes it either so that he may be praised through it, or so that through it he may do something for himself or gain something, or so that he may delight in it, according to the three things found in desirable objects, namely, honorable, beneficial, and delightful good ³⁷. — On account of these three God made the rational soul so that it might praise him, so that it might serve him, and so that it might delight and rest in him; and this is through charity, in which whoever remains remains in God, and God in him ³⁸, so that there is a certain marvelous union there, and from the union a marvelous delight; for, as it is said in Proverbs, my delights are to be with the sons of men. — Behold how the illumination of mechanical art is a way to the illumination of sacred Scripture, and there is nothing in it that does not proclaim true wisdom. And therefore sacred Scripture frequently makes proper use of such likenesses.

15. In this way also it is possible to find, in the illumination of rational philosophy, whose principal intention is concerned with speech, three things to consider according to the threefold consideration of speech itself, namely, with respect to the speaker, by reason of utterance, and with respect to the listener, or by reason of the end.

16. If we consider speech in relation to the speaker, we see that every speech signifies a concept of the mind ³⁹, and that interior concept is the word of the mind and its offspring, which is known even to the one conceiving it. But in order that it become known to the listener, it puts on the form of a voice; and through that garment the intelligible word becomes sensible, is heard externally, and is received in the ear of the listener’s heart, and yet does not depart from the mind of the speaker. — In this way we see in the eternal Word that the Father eternally conceived it by generating, according to that saying of Proverbs 8 ⁴⁰: The abysses did not yet exist, and I was already conceived. But in order that it might become knowable to the sensual man, it put on the form of flesh, and the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and yet remained in the bosom of the Father.

17. If we consider speech in relation to itself, we shall thus discern in it the order of living. For the completion of speech necessarily requires these three to concur, namely, suitability, truth, and adornment. — And in accordance with these three, every action of ours ought to have measure, form, and order⁴¹; so that it is moderated by modesty in external work, beautiful through purity in affection, ordered and adorned through rectitude in intention. For then one lives rightly and orderly, when the intention is right, the affection pure, and the operation modest.

18. But if we consider speech in relation to its end⁴², it is for expressing, instructing, and moving; but it never expresses anything except through species, never teaches except through light that makes evident, and never moves except through virtue; and it is clear that this happens only through intrinsic species, light, and virtue, intrinsically united to the soul: and therefore Augustine concludes⁴³, that he alone is the true teacher who can impress a species, pour in light, and give virtue to the heart of the hearer. And hence it is that “he has his chair in heaven who teaches hearts within.” — Therefore, just as nothing is perfectly known through speech except by means of virtue, light, and species united to the soul, so, for the soul to be instructed in the knowledge of God through His internal speech, it is necessary that it be united to Him who is the radiance of glory and the figure of His substance, upholding all things by the word of His power⁴⁴. — From this it is clear how wondrous is this contemplation, through which Augustine leads us by the hand to divine wisdom in many books.

19. According to this mode also, one finds in the illumination of natural philosophy, whose principal intention concerns formal reasons in matter, in the soul, and in divine wisdom. These can be considered in three ways, namely according to the relation of proportion, according to the effect of causality, and according to the medium of union; and according to these three it is possible to find three premises.

20. If we consider them according to the relation of proportion, we shall see in them the eternal Word and the incarnate Word. Intellectual and abstract reasons are, as it were, midway between seminal and ideal reasons⁴⁵. But seminal reasons cannot be in matter without generation and production of form occurring in it; likewise, neither can intellectual reasons be in the soul without generation of the word in the mind: therefore neither can ideal reasons be in God without production of the Word from the Father according to right proportion; for this is a matter of dignity, and if it belongs to a creature, it can much more strongly be inferred of the Creator. Therefore Augustine said⁴⁶, that the Son of God is “the art of the Father.” — Again, appetite, which is in matter, is ordered to intellectual reasons, so that generation is in no way perfect unless the rational soul is united to bodily matter⁴⁷. — By a similar reasoning, therefore, it can be argued that the supreme and most noble perfection in the universe cannot exist unless the nature in which there are seminal reasons, the nature in which there are intellectual reasons, and the nature in which there are ideal reasons all concur in the unity of one person, which took place in the incarnation of the Son of God. — Thus all natural philosophy proclaims, according to the relation of proportion, the Word of God born and incarnate, so that the same one is alpha and omega⁴⁸, born, namely, in the beginning and before the ages, but incarnate at the end of the ages.

21. But if we consider these reasons according to the effect of causality, we shall ponder the order of living: for generation cannot take place in generable and corruptible matter according to seminal reasons except through the benefit of the light of the supercelestial bodies, which are removed from generation and corruption, namely, the sun, moon, and stars⁴⁹. — In the same way, the soul cannot perform living works unless it receives from the sun—that is, from Christ—the benefit of gratuitous light, unless it obtains the patronage of the moon itself—that is, of the Virgin Mary, Mother of Christ—and unless it imitates the examples of the other Saints; from the concurrence of these a living and perfect work may be gathered within it. Hence the order of living depends on three things.

22. But if we consider these reasons according to the medium of union, we shall understand how the union of the soul with God comes about. For bodily nature cannot be united to the soul except through moisture, through spirit, and through heat, which three dispose the flesh to receive life from the soul⁵⁰. — Accordingly, it is also understood that God neither grants life to the soul nor unites Himself to it unless it is moist through a sigh of compunction and piety, unless it is spiritual through contempt for all that is earthly, unless it is warm through desire for the heavenly homeland and for the Beloved Himself. — Behold how the wisdom of God lies hidden in natural philosophy.

23. Alongside the aforesaid modes, in the illumination of moral philosophy one can find the light of Sacred Scripture: for the intention of moral philosophy is principally concerned with rectitude; indeed, it is concerned with general justice, which, as Anselm says⁵¹, “is rectitude of the will.” Now the right can be made known in three ways, and according to this three premises shine in the consideration of rectitude. In one way, that is called “right, whose middle does not depart from its extremes⁵²”. If, then, there is in God supreme rectitude both according to Himself, insofar as He is the principle, and insofar as He is the end of all things, it is necessary to posit in God a middle person according to Himself, so that one is solely producing, another solely produced, and the middle one both producing and produced. It is also necessary to posit a middle in the egress and regress of things; but the middle in egress must hold more to the side of the producer, while the middle in regress holds more to the side of the one returning: therefore, just as things went forth from God through the Word of God, so, for a complete return, it is necessary that the Mediator of God and men⁵³ be not only God but also man, so that He may lead men back to God.

24. In another way, right is said of that which conforms to its director. And according to this, the order of living is seen in the consideration of rectitude. For he lives rightly who is directed according to the rules of divine law. And this is when the will of man assents to necessary precepts, salutary admonitions, and perfect counsels, so that a man may prove what the good, pleasing, and perfect will of God is⁵⁴. And then there is a right order of living, in which no crookedness can be found.

25. In a third way, right is said of that whose summit is raised upward, just as man has an upright stature. And according to this, the union of God and the soul is manifested in the consideration of rectitude. Since God is above, it is necessary that the apex of the mind itself be raised upward⁵⁵. Now this is when the rational power assents to the first truth for its own sake and above all, when the irascible power leans upon supreme generosity, and when the concupiscible power adheres to goodness; then he who adheres to God in this way is one spirit⁵⁶.

26. And thus it is clear how the manifold wisdom of God⁵⁷, which is lucidly handed on in Sacred Scripture, is hidden in every cognition and in every nature. It is also clear how all cognitions serve theology; and therefore it assumes examples and uses terms pertaining to every kind of cognition. It is also clear how broad the illuminative way is, and how in every thing that is sensed or known God Himself lies hidden within. — And this is the fruit of all the sciences: that faith may be built up in all things, God may be honored⁵⁸, morals may be ordered, and consolations may be drawn—those that are found in the union of bridegroom and bride, which indeed comes about through charity, toward which the whole intention of Sacred Scripture is directed, and consequently all illumination descending from above, and without which all cognition is vain, because one never reaches the Son except through the Holy Spirit, who teaches us all truth; who is blessed forever and ever. Amen⁵⁹.

THE END.